The Methodist Quarterly Review 1875

ART. III-EGYPT AND THE PENTATEUCH. The Books of Moses Illustrated by the Monuments of Egypt. By Dr. E. W. Hengstenberg. Edinburgh: Thomas Clarke.

Ancient Egypt. By Rev. George Devor, M.A. London: Religious Tract Society.

The Egyptians in the Time of the Pharaohs. By Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson. London: Bradbury & Evans.

The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia. By Sir Samuel W. Baker, M.A., F.R.G.S.Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.

Sinai and Palesline. (Introduction.) By Dean Stanley.

THE history of a country is usually associated with the course of its principal rivers. This is pre-eminently true of Egypt, whose very existence depends upon the Nile. Any reference, therefore, to the monuments of ancient Egypt, as throwing light upon the Pentateuch, would be incomplete without some account of its grand and mysterious river.

In the region of Central Africa, directly under the equator, and in latitude 33 east from Greenwich, lie the now celebrated twin lakes, Victoria and Albert N'yanza. The Victoria may be briefly described as a fresh-water sea, three thousand five hundred feet above the ocean level, fed by the almost incessant equatorial rains. Its southern boundary is some three degrees south of the equator, from which point it stretches northward a distance of two hundred and eighty miles. About midway of the northern shore the waters find an outlet, where they break in miniature cascades over the rocky barrier. These rapids mark the spot where the "strange, long wandering Nile" begins its journey of three thousand geographical miles.*

During the first half of its journey the Nile receives many tributaries, chiefly from the west; but between 16 and 18 north latitude two powerful rivers flow in from the east, carrying with them the principal drainage of the high table-lands of Abyssinia. The second of these rivers-the Atbara-forms a junction with the Nile at Berber, and from thence the entire drainage is conveyed to the Mediterranean, without any further tributary, through a course of nearly fifteen hundred miles.

The current of the Nile is broken by several rapids, the last of which occurs in latitude 24, and only about half a degree north

[* I am aware recent discoveries throw doubt upon the statement that the Victoria Lake is the absolute source of the Nile. But assuredly this is the highest point to which the stream itself has yet been traced.]

of the Tropic of Cancer. At this spot the bed of the river is traversed by a ridge of rose-colored granite, from whence came the rich materials for the statues, columns, and obelisks, so abundantly produced by Egyptian art. About three miles below the cataract is the island of Elephantine, and it is at this point that Egypt proper begins. Syene, its frontier town, now called Assouan, stands on the right bank of the river, and is noted for its splendid granite quarries. At this point the valley has a width of only two miles. On the east lies the Arabian Desert, divided from the Nile valley by a range of limestone hills. On the west, beyond another rocky chain, stretches the Sahara, or Great Desert of Libya. In the depression between these ridges flows the Nile. Sometimes there is a space between the river and the hills of several miles, sometimes of only a few yards. Immediately above the blue waters of the river-blue by contrast with the darker colors around-rises a hank of black mud, which, after the inundation, is clothed in the brightest verdure, "like an emerald set in the bosom of the desert." That strip of verdure, with an average width of seven miles, is Egypt; and to have lived below the cataracts, and drank the waters of the Nile, was to be an Egyptian.

From Assouan to Cairo, a distance of six hundred and twenty-nine miles, the valley is limited to an average width of seven miles, forming a strip of verdure drawn across the desert, like a ribbon, with the Nile for a central thread. Under the Pharaohs the upper valley was known as the "Southern region," and formed a distinct govern meat from the "Northern region." The Greeks and Romans divided the upper valley into the Thebais and the Heptanomis, nearly corresponding to the modern divisions of Upper and Central Egypt. Upper Egypt is the most southerly portion. Its capital, Thebes, that magnificent city of whose hundred gates Homer sang, was the No or Nohair Ammon of the prophecies. Middle Egypt was anciently called Heptanomis, because divided into seven nomes, or districts. Its capital, situated at the apex of the Delta, was Memphis, the Noph of the Prophet Jeremiah, whose prediction, "Noph shall be laid waste," has been fulfilled to the very letter. On the right bank of the river stands the modern city of Cairo; and nearly opposite, on the left bank, a salient angle of the Libyan hills serves as a pedestal to the eternal Pyramids, whose gigantic shadows the setting sun flings far over the groves of palm-trees that now cover the space where Memphis stood.

The civilization of Lower Egypt is more ancient, as shown by the monuments, than that of Upper Egypt. This proves that the lower portion was first colonized; and as the country formerly bore the name of Mizraim, the grandson of 11am, there can be little doubt that it was settled by the immediate descendants of that patriarch. After the confusion of tongues at Babel, and the consequent dispersion of the race, the family of Mizraim left the plains of Shinar, crossed what was afterward known as the Arabian Desert, skirted the southern extremity of Palestine, crossed the desert of Shur, and entered the valley of the Nile by way of the Isthmus of Suez. There they founded an' empire and a civilization which has excited the admiration and the wonder of succeeding ages.

Egypt is emphatically the laud of monuments. Next to the Nile, they form the chief feature of the country, as they stand in long procession on the banks of the river, witnesses of an unknown but profound antiquity. They are more abundant and more perfect than in any other country. "India, the battle-field of countless generations, has nothing to compare with them. Babylon and Nineveh wrote their history in brick or perishable alabaster; but Egypt, attaining to a greater superiority in art, was provided at the same time with a material well-nigh indestructible, and a climate which could bid defiance to the ravages of time." Its monuments, constructed of granite, serpentine, or basalt, are of gigantic proportions, ornamented with sculptures and the most brilliant paintings., " With no frosts to splinter, no storms to batter, no moisture to nourish mosses and creepers, the ruins remain as new in appearance as if they were but of yesterday." The monuments are found throughout Egypt, and its former dependencies in Ethiopia and Libya. Besides statues, tablets, and obelisks, they consist of ruined temples, palaces, and especially of sepulchers. In the latter we find the richest treasures of Egyptian lore.

Still, these monuments enwrap themselves in mystery. They have a language as well as a story of their own. Strange characters are carved upon them, known to conceal a history which has perished from every other record. It is only within the present century that the key has been found to these mysterious archives , and their long-hidden annals are still being slowly and painfully deciphered. The way in which this key was discovered deserves at least a passing notice. During the occupation of Egypt by the French, in 1799, the troops were engaged in constructing a fort on the Rosetta branch of the Nile. In the course of their excavations an oblong slab of black basalt, covered with inscriptions, was brought to light, and taken possession of by an officer of the expedition. By the fortunes of war it afterward fell into the hands of the British, and was bent to England, where it arrived in 1802. This was the now celebrated "Rosetta Stone," and its value consists in the fact that it contains what had never before been discovered-a hieroglyphic inscription, with a translation in Greek. It was engraved in three sections, the uppermost in hieroglyphics, the lowest in Greek, and between these another in characters then entirely unknown. The Greek inscription was found to contain a decree by the high-priests, etc., assembled at Memphis; for the coronation of Ptolemy Epiphanes, B. C. 196. With the slender clew thus afforded English and French scholars set patiently to work, and at length succeeded in unraveling the mystery of the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Space will not allow me to dwell at present on the history or topography of Egypt. My object is to show how the Egyptian monuments confirm the truth of the Pentateuch, and rebuke the objections of modern infidelity. A common objection to the inspired narrative is that it contradicts the facts of Egyptian history, and displays an entire ignorance of Egyptian habits and customs, and, therefore, it must have been written by some, one who never had been in Egypt, and at a period long subsequent to the time assigned to Moses. To decide this point we question the monuments, and, lo! the stone cries out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber answers it. The, Pyramids open their secret chambers; Memnon becomes vocal with a more significant melody than of old; the obelisks point their strong fingers to the records of a bygone age sculptured on their granite sides; while the tombs reveal in their rocky chambers histories written in brilliant colorings, apparently as fresh as when laid on four thousand years ago; and all these witnesses testity with ohe voice, "The Word of God shall stand forever."

When we begin to consider the history, religion, and customs of the Egyptians in their bearing on the truth of the Pentateuch, the subject becomes at once inseparably interwoven with the history of the Israelites. I shall, therefore, employ the leading incidents of that history as nuclei around which to group the testimony of the monuments.

We take up the thread of the narrative at the time when Joseph was sold to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh’s guard. On the first point-the selling of Joseph-we have the testimony of Herodotus that the purchase of slaves was common in Egypt. The same author informs 115 that the kings of Egypt had a guard, who, in addition to the regular income of the soldier, received separate pay. In the paintings of marches and battles on the monuments they are represented as employed in protecting the person of the king, and are distinguished by a peculiar dress and weapons. In Genesis xxxix, 4, 5, we are informed that Potiphar placed Joseph over his house and substance. We must not regard this as a sample of the way in which Egyptians usually treated their slaves. In this case a special reason is assigned for Joseph's exaltation, "The Lord was with him." The appointment of a head servant, or steward, illustrates a peculiar feature in Egyptian life. Among the operations of husbandry and tillage portrayed in the Egyptian tombs we often see a steward, who takes account and makes a registry of the harvest before it is deposited in the store-house.

The kindness of Potiphar to Joseph continued for nearly ten years, when a disastrous change occurred, and Joseph was cast into prison. During his imprisonment two of Pharaoh's servants, the chief butler and the chief baker, incurred their master's displeasure, and were put in guard, and placed by the keeper of the prison in Joseph's charge. On a certain night the two men dreamed each a dream, which, on the following day, they related to Joseph. First, the chief butler tells how, in his dream, he stood before Pharaoh, and pressed the juice of the grapes into the wine-cup, and gave it to Pharaoh to drink. Here we have an illustration of Egyptian life. It has been said by objectors that the vine was not cultivated in Egypt at the time here referred to, and hence the statement ascribed to the chief butler is manifestly inaccurate. But what say the monuments In the tomb of Beni-Hassan are to be found representations of the culture of the vine, the vintage, the bearing away and stripping off of the grapes-in short, the whole process of wine manufacture. And these pictures are to be found not only in the monuments of later dynasties, but in those of the earliest Pharaohs. Besides this there are pictures of feasts, in which the guests are represented as overcome with wine.

Next comes the dream of the chief baker. "Behold," says he, "I had three white baskets on my head," [literally, 'baskets full of holes; that is, baskets of wicker-work,] "and in the uppermost basket there was of all manner of bakemeats for Pharaoh." What say the monuments to this They say, first, that flat baskets, made of open wicker-work, for carrying grapes and other fruits, were very common; they say, further, that among the Egyptians the art of baking was carried to a high degree of perfection. They were accustomed to prepare many kinds of pastry for the table, which they kneaded in various shapes. Lastly, the monuments show that the custom of carrying burdens 0" the head was peculiarly Egyptian. Herodotus also mentions this as distinguishing the Egyptians from other nations.

We now come to an interesting event, showing the thorough acquaintance of the writer of the Pentateuch with Egyptian habits and customs. Pharaoh has a dream, and his wise men being unable to interpret the same, lie is troubled. The chief butler now remembers Joseph, and mentions his case to Pharaoh. Joseph is sent for in haste, and it is said "he shaved himself, and changed his raiment." This circumstance, though apparently trifling, is, nevertheless, significant. It was a universal Egyptian custom to shave off the beard, and by this, in the paintings and sculptures on the monuments, they are distinguished from other nations. In shaving himself, therefore, Joseph simply transformed himself, in appearance, into an ordinary Egyptian. So particular were the Egyptians in this matter of shaving, that to have neglected it was a subject of ridicule and reproach; and whenever they intended to convey the idea of a man of low condition, or a slovenly person, the artists represented him with a beard.

Let us now enter, with Joseph, the hall of audience as he goes to interpret Pharaoh's dream. From the entrance to the throne there is a space of one thousand feet, the roof being supported by rows of columns ninety feet high, covered with elaborate sculpturing. A guard of soldiers (perhaps with Potiphar at their head) in silver cuirasses, and helmets covered with silken scarfs, inclose the space. Down the center an avenue of statues of the gods extends toward the throne a distance of eight hundred feet. At the termination of this avenue stand two statues of Osiris and Isis, and in the center of the open space beyond stands the throne of the Pharaohs, elevated upon a platform of variegated marble twelve feet from the floor. The, platform is square, and at the four corners crouch four lions, one having the head of an eagle, another of a sea-dragon, another of a bull, and another of a man, representing the kingdoms of the air, the sea, the earth, and the intellect, or soul. The platform is ascended by four flights of steps of Syenite granite, inlaid with precious stones. In each flight are seven steps, representing the seven mouths of the Nile. In the midst of the platform, "rising island-like in this hall of the Pharaohs, stands the throne itself, separated from every other object, in solitary splendor, and reflected in the brilliantly polished marble floor." The material of the throne is the purest ivory, carved with wondrous skill. High above the throne is a canopy of blue silk, extending over the whole dais, and on the throne sits APHOPHIS, the Pharaoh who ruled in Egypt at the time of which we write. Around his throne are his men of power, while in the next circle may be seen the wise men of Egypt the magicians and astrologers-vainly endeavoring to interpret Pharaoh's dream. Thronging the body of the hall is a vast array of officers and courtiers. All are in a state of eager expectancy, when suddenly the massive doors fly open, and down the central avenue of statues the young Hebrew captive is seen advancing, till he stands in the open space before the throne.

"I have dreamed a dream," says the haughty' ruler of Egypt, "and, behold, there came up out of the river seven kine, fat-fleshed and we]l-favored;. and they fed in' a meadow: and, behold, seven other kine came up after them, poor and very ill-favored and lean-fleshed, such as I never saw in all the land of Egypt for badness." The first thing that strikes us here is the naturalness of the record, and the perfect way in which it accords with Egyptian modes of thought. The objects beheld by Pharaoh are kine. The Egyptians regarded the cow as the symbol of Isis and the earth-that is, of fruitfulness; so that to represent kine in different conditions, as the types of different kinds of seasons, was perfectly natural. Here observe, the kine "came up out of the river." This becomes perfectly intelligible when we remember that upon the Nile Egypt depended for its fertility-the variation of a few feet in the height of the annual inundation making all the difference between a fruitful and a barren year-in other words, between plenty and famine.

Pharaoh then proceeds to relate his second dream: "Behold, seven ears came up in one stalk, full and good: and, behold, seven ears withered, thin, and blasted with the east wind, sprung up after them." It has been said by objectors that there is no scorching east wind in Egypt; that the phenomenon belongs to Palestine, from which region the writer of the Pentateuch had incautiously transferred it to the valley of the Nile. It is, indeed, true that in Egypt there is rarely a wind directly from the east, but there is oftentimes a south-east wind which is precisely the one to produce the effects here stated. Besides, it blows commonly at the time when the events of Pharaoh's dream are supposed to have occurred-before the corn harvest, which, in Egypt, is in March and April. That the Hebrew word should be east instead of south-east, is not surprising when we remember that the Hebrews had terms only for the four principal winds, and that any wind from an easterly direction would be called by them an east wind. This south-east wind is called Chamsin, and when it arises the heat becomes almost insupportable. "As long as it continues doors and windows are closed, but the fine dust penetrates everywhere; every thing dries up; wooden vessels warp and crack; and the grass withers and perishes if this wind blows long."

Joseph having interpreted Pharaoh's dream, declaring that there should be seven years of great plenty, followed by seven years of famine, counsels him to choose out a wise man and set him over the affairs of Egypt, that he might gather in the surplus productions of the plenteous years against the years of famine. The counsel pleased Pharaoh, and, impressed with the wisdom of Joseph, he appointed him the second ruler in Egypt. In this investiture of Joseph with the king's delegated power, it is said that Pharaoh took off his ring and put it upon Joseph's hand. Upon this point we need not dwell, inasmuch as the gift of the signet-ring, as the symbol of delegated power, is common all over the East to this day. But it is added, he arrayed Joseph "in vesture of fine linen, and put a gold chain [literally, the gold chain, the chain of office] about his neck." The fine linen of Egypt was a fabric celebrated for the beauty of its texture. A piece obtained by Mr. Wilkinson at Thebes shows, when put under the microscope, one hundred and fifty-two threads in the warp, and seventy-one in the woof, to the square inch-much finer than the finest productions of the present day. Garments of cotton or linen were considered by the Egyptians as pure and holy, and the priests wore no other kind. The investiture of Joseph in linen garments was a part of the process by which he became a naturalized Egyptian. Then, as to the necklace of gold: In the tombs of Beni-Hassan many slaves are represented, each of whom has in his hand something which belongs to the dress or ornaments of his master. The first carries a necklace, and over it is the inscription, "Necklace of gold." Some beautiful specimens of these necklaces, taken from Egyptian tombs, are now in the British Museum.

In addition to this investiture with the insignia of office Pharaoh gave to Joseph a new name, and "gave him to wife Asenath the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On." This record has been assailed by Rationalists, on the ground that an alliance of intolerant priests with a foreign shepherd is entirely op posed to the character of the Egyptians. But we must remember that this marriage took place by command of the king, (who stood at the head of the priestly caste,) and after Joseph had become a fully naturalized Egyptian, had assumed the Egyptian dress, received an Egyptian name, and been established as the second ruler in the kingdom. Such a change in Joseph's circumstances might well cause a change in the feelings with which the priestly caste regarded him.

Fourth Series, Vol. XXVII-15

Some may be inclined to wonder that one who, under very trying circumstances, had remained faithful to the true God, should unite himself to a worshiper of Osiris. Viewed from a Christian stand-point, it is strange; but to judge the conduct of a man living in Egypt three thousand seven thousand years ago by the light we now enjoy, would be utterly unreasonable. Besides, it may be doubted whether the religion of Egypt, at that period, was as grossly idolatrous as many suppose. The tradition which gives the history of the Egyptian mythology is as follows: "Osiris was in the beginning the lord of all worlds. He came upon earth for the benefit of mankind. Before his coming the ox and all other animals were wild, and of no service to man. The Nile was a terror to Egypt. Vegetation had perished. He entered into all things, and infused his life and good, and uses, into all. He bound the Nile to its banks by breasting its flood and subduing it. His spirit passed into the bull and all cattle. He tempered the heat of the sun, and drew the poison from the moon. The earth became his bride, under the name of Isis, and thus was man benefited and the earth made habitable. Upon this his brother Sethis, who represented 'evil,' as Osiris did 'good,' sought his destruction, and caused him to be put to death. He was buried, and rose again, and became the, judge of dead." Such was the foundation of Egyptian mythology; and hence the sun, the moon, the Nile, animals, and even vegetables, were regarded as sacred, because the spirit or soul of Osiris had been infused into them to change them from evil to good. Thus our God was worshiped through invisible objects which he had consecrated. In the course of ages these objects multiplied; the people n6 longer distinguished between the symbol and the thing symbolized, and thus the worship of Egypt, which at first was a simple monotheism, degenerated in after times into a wide-spread and debasing idolatry.

According to Joseph's interpretation of Pharaoh's dream, Egypt was to be blessed with seven years of great plenty, to be followed by seven years of famine. This prediction was, according to the Bible narrative, fulfilled to the very letter. In this remarkable concurrence of events there was, doubtless, a supernatural or miraculous element; but there was also a substratum of natural law. Egypt in ordinary seasons is one of the most fruitful countries on the face of the earth; but its fertility depends on the annual overflow of the Nile. The river, as we have seen, takes its rise in the Victoria and Albert Lakes, in Equatorial Africa, where the almost incessant rains keep these natural reservoirs always full. But about midway between the equator and the Mediterranean two powerful tributaries form a junction with the Nile. These rivers are not fed by lakes, as is the case with the main stream, but are dependent for their supply upon the periodical rains which fall in the mountain ranges of Abyssinia. The first of these rivers is the Blue Nile; but the principal one, so far as the fertility of Egypt is concerned, is the Atbara, so called by Sir William Baker, although known in the geographies as the Tacazze. But how do we account for the periodical overflow of these rivers In this way: During a portion of the year the vapors which rise from the Mediterranean are very abundant. These, carried along by light winds from the north, pass over the heated soil of Egypt and the deserts; but, on reaching the mountain ranges of Abyssinia, rapidly condense in the cooler atmosphere, and descend in rains of remarkable violence. These rains begin in April, and, for a time, descend at intervals; but as the season advances they become more copious, and fall almost without intermission, and rushing from every direction into the channel of the Atbara, suddenly swell the almost exhausted current into a mighty, irresistible flood. Sir William Baker, who spent months in exploring the country traversed by the Atbara, describes the bed of the river as a channel from four hundred to five hundred yards wide, with clay banks of thirty feet perpendicular descent. "So completely," he remarks, "were the waters exhausted by the dry season that the current had almost ceased to flow." The same writer gives the following graphic description of the sudden rise of the stream

The cool night arrived, and at about half past eight I was lying half asleep upon my bed by the margin of the river, when I fancied that I heard a rumbling like distant thunder. I had not heard such a sound for months. Hardly had I raised my head to listen more attentively when a confusion of voices arose from the Arabs' camp, with a sound of many feet, and in a few minutes they rushed into my camp, shouting to my men in the darkness, "El Bahr! El Bahr!" The river! The river! We were up in an instant, and my interpreter, in a state of intense confusion, explained that the river was coming down, and that the supposed distant thunder was the roar of approaching water.

All was darkness and confusion, . . . but the great event had occurred; the river had arrived "like a thief in the night." On the morning of the 24th of June I stood on the banks of the noble Atbara at the break of day. The wonder of the desert! Yesterday there was a barren sheet of glaring sand, with a fringe of withered bush and trees upon its borders, that cut the yellow expanse of the desert. In one night there was a mysterious change-wonders of the mighty Nile!-an army of waters was hastening to the wasted river! All had been dry and sultry-dust and desolation yesterday; to-day a magnificent stream, some five hundred yards wide, and from fifteen to twenty feet deep, flowed through the dreary desert. . . . Here was the giant laborer that had shoveled the rich loam upon the Delta of Lower Egypt. The Arab name "Bahr-el-aswat, (Black River,) was well bestowed. It was the black mother of Egypt still carrying to her offspring the nourishment that had first formed the Delta. Wherever the sources of the Nile may be, the Atbara is the parent of Egypt.'

But what has all this to do with the seven years of plenty and the seven years of' famine in Egypt in the time of Joseph Much every way. It shows how entirely Egypt was dependent on the annual overflow of her majestic river. A succession of heavier rains than usual among the mountains of Abyssinia insured a more than ordinarily fruitful season; oil the other hand, if these rains were withheld a wasting famine was the result. At various points along the Nile are instruments designed to measure the height of the annual overflow; and it is worthy of remark that the records indicate years in which the waters rose from ten to twenty feet above the average level, while they point out other years in which the waters failed by many feet to reach their wonted height. Even in modern times Egypt has frequently been visited by famines owing to this cause.

The labors of Joseph in building store-houses are placed vividly before us in the paintings on the monuments. In a tomb at Elethya a man is represented whose, business it is to take account of the quantity of grain which another man is measuring. The inscription reads, "The writer or registrar of bushels." In a tomb at Beni-Hassan there is a painting of a great store-house, before the door of which lies a heap of grain already winnowed. On the walls there are characters which indicate the quantity deposited in the magazine, thus affording an illustration of Gen. xli, 49: "And Joseph gathered corn as the sand of the sea, very much, until he left numbering."

Passing over several occurrences connected with the arrival of Joseph's brethren in Egypt, we note the incident where Joseph's cup is found in Benjamin's sack. The point to be observed is the remark of Joseph's steward, "Is not this it in which my Lord drinketh, and whereby indeed he divineth" Our business here is not to prove that Joseph could really divine by means of his cup, but merely to show that such a practice was common in Egypt, and that the writer of the Pentateuch was well acquainted with Egyptian customs. Jamblichus, in his book on Egyptian mysteries, mentions this custom of divining by the cup, and says that by means of certain figures, reflected in the rays of light in clear water, future circumstances were prognosticated. One method of divining by the cup was by casting into it pieces of gold or silver leaf, together with precious stones, engraved with certain characters; when, on the gods being invoked, the engraved signs were seen to be reflected in the water, by which certain facts inquired into were supposed to be ascertained. Another method was that of dropping incited wax into the cup, and inferring the answer to a given question from the shape it assumed on the surface of the water.

In the forty-sixth chapter of Genesis we have the account of Jacob going down into Egypt with his household and all their substance. A remarkable parallel to this description is furnished by a scene in a tomb at Beni-Hassan, representing strangers who arrive in Egypt. They carry their goods with them upon asses, and over this the number "37" is written in hieroglyphics. The first figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival to a person in a sitting posture, the owner of the tomb, and one of the chief officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, likewise an Egyptian, ushers them into his presence, arid two of the strangers advance, bringing presents. Four men, with bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass, on which there are two children in panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women. Last of all another ass, laden, and two men, one of whom carries a bow and club, and the other a lyre, on which he plays. All the men have beards, contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, although very general in the East at that period, and represented in their sculptures as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized nations. Some authors believe that this picture has a direct reference to the arrival of Jacob and his family in Egypt.

Before introducing his brethren to Pharaoh. Joseph charges them to say that they were shepherds, so that Pharaoh might give them a location in the rich pasture-lands of Goshen, "for," it is added, "every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians." To this day the monuments furnish abundant evidence of this hatred of the Egyptians to shepherds. The artists of Upper and Lower Egypt vie with each other in caricaturing them. But how do we account for this abhorrence By a Significant fact in Egyptian history. Years before the time when Joseph was sold into Egypt a terrible calamity befell the nation. "The first migration of nations whereof history has retained the remembrance came rushing across Western Asia. Swollen by all the nomadic tribes that it had gathered on its way, it fell suddenly upon the valley of the Nile." Whence came this human avalanche We cannot tell with certainty; but, "judging by the force of its impetus, and the length of time it took for the disappearance of its straggling remnants, by the name accursed which it has left in the memory of Egypt-above all, by the avenging hate which, in later times, repeatedly impelled the Egyptian armies beyond the Tigris-it is in Central Asia that we must look for the starting-point of the invaders."

The only historic account we have of this invasion is that given by Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who lived and wrote when the Greeks were masters of Egypt. On many points, especially on Egyptian chronology, the testimony of Manetho is utterly unworthy of credit; but his account of the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings, has an air of truth about it that renders it perfectly credible. "In ancient times," he says, "the anger of God was aroused against us, I know not why; and there came from the direction of the east a multitude of men of ignoble race, who, precipitating themselves upon our country, possessed themselves of it without a struggle and with the greatest ease. They slew part of the chiefs, and cast the rest into chains. They burnt our cities, and threw down the temples of the gods. Their barbarity toward the Egyptians was such that all who had not perished by the sword were reduced, with their women and children, to the hardest servitude." Manetho further relates how the first king of the invaders, named Salatis, erected a strong fortification eastward of the Bubastic branch of the Nile, in which he placed a powerful garrison. "Dying after a reign of nineteen years, he bad for a successor Beon, who was replaced by Apachnas, to whom succeeded APOPHIS, [the Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt when Joseph came into power,] then Yanas, then Assis, in all six kings in two hundred and fifty-nine years and three months." There is at the present time, in the British Museum, a papyrus roll on which is an inscription agreeing substantially with the account given by Manetho.

In this fragment of Egyptian history the following points are clearly presented: Previous to the time of Joseph Egypt was invaded and conquered by a vast army, to the rulers of which was given the name of Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings, as indicative of their previous mode of life. Part of the native Egyptians were slain, part reduced to servitude, while a vast number (though this is not mentioned by Manetho) fled the country, and sought refuge in Nubia, behind the granite ram-parts of Syeue. From this point their descendants ultimately descended, and recovered possession of the country. It appears also, from other records, that the Hyksos adopted the religion of the country, that the native priests still continued to exercise their functions, an d that a great number of native Egyptians remained in the land, and, in the course of years, were treated by the successors of the first Hyksos as citizens rather than as slaves. Doubtless it is this native population that is referred to when it is said, "Every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." The rulers of the land had no such prejudices, because they regarded the sons of Jacob as sprung from the same stock as themselves; but they wisely respected the prejudices of the native population, and hence gave permission to the Hebrews to settle in a part of the country by themselves.

In the first chapter of Exodus reference is made to the rapid' increase of the Hebrews, after which follows this statement: "Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we: come on, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land." We have already referred to the Hyksos invasion, and to the fact that the native Egyptians, expelled by the invaders, took refuge in Nubia. Issuing from thence, they made forays from time to time upon their conquerors, transmitting the quarrel from father to son for the space of two hundred and fifty years. Waxing stronger, they first possessed themselves of Upper Egypt, then descending to the Heptanomis, they regained possession of that, and finally succeeded in expelling the Hyksos entirely from the country. The "king who knew not Joseph" was, therefore, simply a descendant of the Pharaohs who ruled in Egypt before the Hyksos invasion. This fact accounts for the jealousy with which lie regarded the Hebrews believing them to be of the same stock as the hated race who had held possession of Egypt for two hundred and fifty years. His hatred of foreigners was so intense that it led the native Pharaoh, when they regained possession of the country, to destroy every monument calculated to perpetuate the memory of the Hyksos rule; consequently there remain only a few fragments of the public works undertaken while Joseph was prime minister of Egypt.

From Exodus iv, 14, we learn that task-masters were set over the Israelites, and that the latter were employed in building for Pharaoh the treasure-cities Pithom and Raamses, or Rameses, as it is more commonly called. These cities were situated in the land of Goshen, the province where the Israelites dwelt, and one of them became the rendezvous before the exodus. Again, it is said, they (the Egyptians) made the lives of the Israelites "bitter with hard bondage in mortar and brick, and in all manner of servitude in the field." Now we know from various sources of information that the use of brick was very common in Egypt, arid it is a significant fact that a small portion of chopped straw is found in the Composition of these bricks. But one of the most remarkable confirmations of this portion of the Pentateuch is found in a painting discovered in a tomb at Thebes, representing the Hebrews as they were engaged in making brick. Some of the laborers are employed in transporting the clay in vessels, some in intermingling it with the straw; others are taking the bricks out of the form and placing them in rows; still others, with a piece of wood upon their backs and ropes on each side, carrying the bricks already burned or dried.

We now pass over a number of incidents in the life of Moses, and take up again the thread of the Bible narrative at the time when, in obedience to the Divine command, he demanded permission for the Israelites to go and sacrifice to God in the wilderness.

To realize the impressiveness of the scene, we must remember that he who at that time sat upon thc throne of Egypt was an unrelenting foe of the Jewish people. lie it was who, for a long series of years, had increased their burdens, till they groaned in hopeless anguish under the oppression. We must remember, also, that Moses had been for many years outlawed from Egypt, and that it was at the risk of his life to return at all. But God had given commandment, and, with that resolute faith which characterized his course all through life, Moses obeyed. To obtain admission to the presence of the king was not difficult, because on certain days lie gave audience in the throne room, when, according to custom, no one, however humble, was refused permission to lay his petition before the king.

We can imagine the impressive scene when the two venerable brothers, accompanied by several of the elders of their nation, enter the hall of judgment. Calm, fearless, and with the dignity of princes, they proceed down the central avenue of statues, till, in the open space before the throne, they make obeisance to the ruler of Egypt. For a moment the king gazes inquiringly upon them; but who can describe his feelings of mingled astonishment and anger when he first realizes that these petitioners are Hebrew slaves! Nor is his angry astonishment lessened when, in answer to his haughty inquiry as to their business, he hears the startling demand, "Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, Let my people go, that they may hold a feast to me in the wilderness." We can hardly wonder that his first words are those of angry defiance, coupled with a threat. of increasing, instead of diminishing, the burdens of the people. In the name of the god of Egypt he defies the God of Israel, and refuses to let the people go. This brings the question to a decisive issue. Pharaoh resolves, as in any a fool since that day has done, to measure strength with Jehovah. We shall soon see with what result.

Undaunted by the first repulse, Moses and Aaron go again before Pharaoh and repeat their request, and when he demands a sign, Aaron casts down his rod, and it is at once changed into a serpent. The magicians, at Pharaoh's request, also cast down their rods, and similar results follow.

Several points here are worthy of attention. When Moses and Aaron go in before Pharaoh Aaron carries a rod in his hand, and in various passages we find reference to the rod which Moses carried. This custom was peculiarly Egyptian. The monuments show that the Egyptian nobles, when they went out, carried a stick from three to six feet long; and, from Exod. vii, 12, it appears that each of the magicians carried a similar instrument. When Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh, it is said that it became a serpent, and the same phenomenon occurred when the magicians cast down their rods. It will aid our apprehension of the situation if we remember that the contest now beginning was a direct and well-understood contest between the gods of Egypt and the God of Israel ; hence we see the Divine wisdom in beginning with miracles which the magicians were able to counterfeit, inasmuch as it rendered their subsequent overthrow more decisive. The counter-wonder of the magicians was founded upon a peculiar condition of Egyptian society. The art of serpent-charming has been native to Egypt from the earliest times. It is confined to a certain class, and is transmitted from father to son. At religious festivals these persons appear entirely naked, with the neck, arms, and other parts of the body coiled around by serpents, which they permit to sting and tear their breasts, defending themselves against them with a sort of phrensy, pretending to wish to eat them alive. They are able, according to their assertion, to change the hadja-a very venomous species of serpent-into a rod, and compel it to feign itself dead. When they wish to perform this wonder they spit in the throat of the animal, compel it to shut up its mouth, and lay it down upon the ground. Then, as if in order to give a last command, they lay their hand upon its head, and immediately the serpent, stiff and motionless, falls into a kind of torpor. They wake it up when they wish, rolling it roughly between their hands. Of course all this does not explain how the wonder was accomplished, in the case of Pharaoh's magicians; but it serves to prove the minute acquaintance of the writers of the Pentateuch with Egyptian customs. There is a peculiar feature, too, in this contest: Aaron's rod, when changed into a serpent, swallows those of the magicians.

The next act in the series of wonders was turning the waters of Egypt into blood. In this miraculous transaction there is a substratum, if I may so express it, of natural occurrences. The water of the Nile, at the beginning of the inundation, assumes a red color, caused by the large admixture of reddish-colored clay, brought down, during the heavy rains, from the table-lands of the Atbara. The miraculous element in the event under consideration, was the sudden and intense character of the change, and the fact that it extended to all the canals, lakes, and pools, and even to the water contained in vessels of wood and stone in the houses. The severity of the chastisement appears from the vast importance of the Nile water to the Egyptians, and from the enthusiastic love of the people for it. The Nile water is almost the only drinkable water in Egypt. The Turks are accustomed to say, that if Mohammed had drank thereof he would have asked immortality of life that he might drink of it always. When the Egyptians go on a pilgrimage to Mecca or elsewhere, they speak continually of the delight which they will experience when, on their return, they shall drink again of the water of the Nile. These facts will enable us to appreciate the words of Moses, "The Egyptians shall loathe to drink of the water of the river.

We have now reached a point in the history of the Israelites where the monuments can afford us no further information. Of course Egypt erected no monuments to perpetuate the memory of her national humiliation, and the crippling of her military power. It may be observed, however, in passing, that each of the plagues was directed against some one of the gods of Egypt. The' Nile was worshiped-its waters are turned into blood. Other gods were worshiped, as protectors against flies, locusts, and other insect plagues-these now came in such countless swarms that the land is devoured by them. The Egyptians worshiped Apis, the sacred bull, as an emblem of Osiris-their cattle are smitten with a grievous murrain. Then followed the plague of boils upon man and beast., the tempest of fire and hail, the supernatural darkness, and, last of all, the swift flight of the destroying angel, smiting the first-born as he passed.

The morning dawns at last-the day of deliverance for a long-oppressed race. We gaze with profound interest upon their movements. We see them journeying from Rameses to Succoth from Succoth to Ethan, and we follow on until from the rocks of Baal-Zeplion we look down upon the shores of the Red Sea, strewn with the wrecks of Egypt's chivalry; while far beyond the mighty host move onward, led by the mysterious fiery pillar that for many succeeding years guided their desert-wanderings, type of the constant presence of God with his people still as he guides them to their heavenly rest.

It needs not that we should further pursue the theme. Enough has been said to show that there are no such discrepancies between the records of God's Word and of Egypt's ancient history, as some have asserted; and my object will be gained if these facts serve to strengthen in any mind the conviction that, spite of all the assaults of infidelity, "the Word of the Lord shall stand forever."

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