THEOLOGY IN THE CHURCH

Having dealt with the materials and methods of theology, it is our task now to trace the development of Systematic Theology in the Church. Doctrinal discussions arise not only from original and elaborate sources, but from the simplest writings of the early church fathers. The History of Dogmatics, however, is concerned primarily with the attempts at framing an orderly and systematic representation of Christian truth as a whole, and can give attention only in a secondary manner to the discussions which have furthered or hindered the development of a Systematic Theology.

Hagenbach finds five tendencies in the development of Christian Doctrine. (I) The Age of Apologetics, when it was the main endeavor of the theological mind to defend Christianity against infidelity from without the Church. It extends from the Apostolic Age to the death of Origen (A.D. 70-254). (II) The Age of Polemics or Controversies, when it was the main endeavor of the theological mind to maintain Christianity against heresy from within the Church. It extends from the death of Origen to John of Damascus (A.D. 254-730). (III) The Age of Systematizing Past Results or of Scholasticism, in the widest significance of the word. It extends from John of Damascus to the Reformation (A.D. 730-1517). (IV) The Age of Creed Controversy. It extends from the reformation to the Leibnitz-Wolfian philosophy (A.D. 1517-1720). (V) The Age of Philosophizing upon Christianity. This period is characterized by criticism and speculation, the reconciliation of faith with science, and reason with revelation (A.D. 1720 to about the close of the nineteenth century).

For our purpose in reviewing the development of theology in the Church, we shall use the following outline: (I) The Earlier Period. from the Apostolic Age to the time of John of Damascus (A.D. 70-730). (II) The Mediaeval or Scholastic Period, from John of Damascus to the Reformation (A.D. 730-1517). (III) The Reformation Period, covering the remaining portion of the sixteenth century (A.D. 1517 to c. 1600). (IV) The Confession Period, covering the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (AD. 1600 to c. 1800). (V) The Modern Period from the beginning of the nineteenth century to the present time (A.D. 1800 to the present). 

THE EARLIER PERIOD 

The Earlier Period may be subdivided into (I) The Apologetic Period, from the Apostolic Age to the death of Origen (A.D. 7-254); and (II) The Age of Polemics, from the death of Origen to John of Damascus (A.D. 254-730). The Earlier Period is peculiarly that of the Church Fathers, who through defenses of Christianity against paganism from without, and controversies against heresy from within, wrought out through patient endurance and often at the price of martyrdom, the materials which the doctors of later periods systematized by various methods into Christian Dogmatics. 

Great Leaders of the Earlier Period. The earlier Church Fathers are generally classified in two main divisions: (I) the Ante-Nicene Fathers and (II) the Post-Nicene Fathers. For our purpose, however, we shall mention only the Apostolic Fathers and the Earlier Apologists. The Apostolic Fathers were those of the first and second centuries who were known to have been personally associated with the apostles, or to have been directly influenced by them, so that their writings breathe the same spirit as attaches to the later epistles of the New Testament. Among these may be named Clement of Rome (1st century) the first bishop of Rome whose extant work known as The Epistle of 

Among the striking and quotable sentences, McGiffert gives the following: "It is better to keep silence and to be than to talk and not be." "It is meet that we not only be called Christians but also be Christians." "Where there is more toil there is much gain." "A Christian has no authority over himself but giveth his time to God." "Christianity is a thing of power whenever it is hated by the world." "I am God's wheat and I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts that I may be found pure bread."-McGIFFERT, History of Chr. Thought, I, p. 37.

 

I Clement, is an elaborate and treatiselike writing similar in form to the Epistle to the Hebrews. The next in order is Ignatius of Antioch, born about the middle of the first century. He was an immediate disciple of St. John with whom he was contemporary for about twenty years. There are seven letters extant, written like some from the pen of St. Paul, while he was on his way to Rome where he suffered martyrdom. His letters have been characterized as "fiery, incisive, vigorous and eloquent beyond any other writings of the post-apostolic period." His striking personality and the depth of his thought characterize him as the outstanding figure of this period. The dominant tone of his life was that of devotional love. The third in regular succession is Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who wrote an Epistle to the Philippians about A.D. 120. He was a disciple of Ignatius and is generally considered to have been personally acquainted with St. John. He left a noble testimony preceding his martyrdom, an account of which was sent by the Church at Smyrna to the Church of Philomelium some thirty years later, and is usually included with his epistle. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, who likewise may have been a disciple of St. John, wrote five books, but of these only fragments remain of his Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord

In his Epistle to the Roman Church, Irenaeus advises the Christians there of his coming and begs them not to do anything to secure his release and prevent him from martyrdom, for he regarded it as "the greatest privilege and the highest honor to die for the name of Christ." "Bear with me," he writes. "I know what is expedient for me. Now I am beginning to be a disciple. May nought of the things visible and things invisible envy me, that I may attain unto Jesus Christ. Come fire and cross and grapplings with wild beasts, wrenching of bones, hacking of limbs, crushing of my whole body! Come cruel tortures of the devil to assail me! Only be it mine to attain unto Jesus Christ." "The pangs of a new birth are upon me. Bear with me, brethren. Do not hinder me from living; do not desire my death. Bestow not upon the world one who desireth to be God's, neither allure him with material things. Suffer me to receive the pure light. When I am come thither, then I shall be a man. Permit me to be an imitator of the passion of my God."-IRENAEUS, Epistle to the Romans, pp. 5, 6.  Polycarp's noble testimony has been quoted perhaps more than any other of the words of the Fathers. "Eighty and six years have I served Him, my Lord and my King, and He has never done me wrong. How can I deny Him?"

   was a disciple of Polycarp, and thus there is established a direct relationship from St. John to Irenaeus, the last of the Apostolic Fathers. 

There were also a number of anonymous writings that are of sufficient importance to demand attention. The Didache or Teachings of the Twelve is believed to have been published about A.D. 80-90, and if so is perhaps the oldest uninspired manuscript of the Christian Era. The Epistle of Barnabas is sometimes attributed to Barnabas the companion of Paul, but the weight of evidence is in favor of anonymous authorship. The Epistle to Diognetus claims discipleship with the apostles, but probably this is meant in the broad sense of conformity to apostolic teachings. The Shepherd of Hermas is strictly speaking, of sub-apostolic authorship, but is generally classified with the writings of the Apostolic Fathers. Some claim authorship of this epistle for Hermes mentioned by St. Paul in Romans 16: 14, but the evidence appears stronger for Hermas, the brother of Pius, Bishop of Rome c. 139-154. There is also the epistle known as II Clement which is sub-apostolic in date, but which like I Clement is classified with the writings of the Apostolic Fathers. Its author is unknown, but in all probability it is a homily written about A.D. 120-140, and therefore perhaps the earliest extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation. 

 

During the next or Apologetic Period proper, the great names among the earlier apologists are those of Justin Martyr (died c. 165), who wrote the First and Second Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho; Clement of Alexandria (c. 160-220), a voluminous writer but whose best known work is probably the Stromateis or Miscellanies treating of various biblical and theological subjects - other works being the Protrepticus written with an evangelistic purpose to make converts, and Paedagogus, an elementary manual intended as a handbook for the instruction of new converts; Tertullian (155-222), whose De Testimonio Animae is but one of his numerous works; and Cyprian (200-258), an African bishop whose greatest contribution is found in his teachings concerning the Church. 

 

Then there was Origen (185-254), perhaps the greatest scholar and writer of this period, whose De Principiis will be given further attention; Arius (d. 336), a popular and influential preacher and a scholar of no little ability. who, adopting the rationalistic positions of Lucian (d. 311 at Antioch), came into conflict with his bishop, Alexander, and thus brought about the great Arian Controversy; Athanasius (c. 296-373), the opponent of Arius, and known as the "father of orthodoxy" because of his championship of the deity of Christ; the greatest name of the period, Augustine (354-430), to whose writings both the Roman Catholic and many Protestants turn for authority; and lastly, John of Damascus (700-760), the great theologian of the Eastern Church. 

Besides these there are many names of lesser importance, but of intense interest to the student of Apologetics, Aristides who addressed an apology to Emperor Antonius Pius about A.D. 150, Tatian known especially for his Diatesseron, Athenagoras (wrote c. 176-178) who addressed an appeal to Marcus Aurelius; a defense of Christianity written by Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch about A.D. 190; the three great Cappadocians, Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389), Gregory Nyssa (Bp. in 372) and Basil (c. 330-379) noted for their work in the solution of the trinitarian problem; Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444), Theodoret of Cyprus (died 457), Theodore of Mopsuesta (c. 350-428 or 429) all of whom contributed interpretations of Scripture, or devotional and apologetic tracts. Cyril's answer to Julian has been notorious in apologetic literature. 

 

The Great Councils of the Earlier Period. No summary, however brief, can do justice to the Earlier Period without enumerating the great councils. These gave to the Church the clear and concise statements of doctrine out of which the theology of the Church was constructed. "In the lead of these controversies," says Philip Schaff, "stood church teachers of imposing talents and energetic piety; not mere bookmen, but venerable theological characters, men of a piece, as great in acting as in suffering. To them theology was a sacred business of heart and life." We give the following summary of the Ecumenical Councils. The East and West recognize seven Ecumenical Councils, but the Roman Catholic Church holds to a greater number. By "ecumenical" is meant one which, whether representative in membership or not, is accepted by the entire Church as rightly representing it in its definitions of faith. These councils with one exception were all held during the Polemic Period. 

 

(1) The Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) was called by the Emperor Constantine to consider, and if possible to settle, the Arian heresy. It gave the Church the first great ecumenical creed. (2) The First Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381) was called by Emperor Theodosius the Great in order to correct the errors of Apollinarianism and Macedonianism. Apollinaris (d. 392) held that Christ assumed only a human body, and that the Logos took the place of human mind or spirit. Macedonius (c. 341), Bishop of Constantinople, taught that the Holy Spirit was not a Person but a divine energy through the universe. (3) The Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431) was presided over by Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, and was called on occasion of the Nestorian controversy which seemed to teach a Christological dualism. (4) The Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) was presided over by three bishops and two presbyters, who were the representatives of Leo of Rome. Six hundred and thirty bishops were present. This council condemned the Eutychian heresy which confused the two natures of Christ. It gave to the Church the creedal statement on Christology which has stood the test of the centuries. (5) The Second Council of Constantinople (A.D. 553) was called by Emperor Justinian, and presided over by the patriarch Eutychus. The council condemned the writings of Theodore of Mopsuesta, Theodoret of Cyprus and the Epistle of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa-all these being thought to favor Nestorianism. (6) The Third Council of Constantinople (A.D. 680) called by the emperor Constantine Pogonatus, was directed against Monothelitism, or the teaching that the divine will supplanted the human will in Christ. (7) The Second Council of Nicaea (A.D. 787) falls across the line into the next period but is mentioned here as being one of the great councils. It had to do with the Iconoclasts and Iconduli. 

 

The Development of Systematic Theology. While much preliminary work was done by the writers of this period, probably the first formal attempt at Systematic Theology was Origen's De Principus, or "First Principles," written about A.D. 218. It is arranged in four books, the first treating of God; the second of Creation and the facts of human history; the third of man's moral and spiritual endowments; and the fourth of the Holy Scriptures as the basis of the Christian system. No adequate place is given to either Christology or Soteriology, and the doctrine of the Church is omitted entirely. Westcott points out the value of the fourth division which "he examines with reverence, an insight, a humility, a grandeur of feeling never surpassed, the question of the inspiration and interpretation of the Bible" (Cf. SMITH, Dictionary of Chr. Biography, iv, p. 121). In view of the four Christological heresies, the Arian, the Apollinarian, the Nestorian and the Eutychian, the writings of Athanasius are of exceptional value but cannot be said to take the form of Systematic Theology. 

 

The second formal attempt at Systematic Theology was the Enchiridion of Augustine (353-430), the great dogmatic and polemic writer of the fifth century whose influence is yet strong in theological thought. As a polemical writer he opposed the Manichaeans, the Donatists, the Pelagians and the Semi-Pelagians. The doctrines of Augustine when focused upon Pelagianism, show a controversial position at every point, the controversy itself being not so much between Augustine and Pelagius, as a conflict between the East and the West focused in these eminent theologians. We shall have occasion to notice these contrasts in the following sections on Theology, the Trinity, Christology, and Soteriology. The Enchiridion is an exposition of the Creed, and in the West became as authoritative as the creeds themselves, going far beyond them in the doctrines of sin and salvation. The work was organized on the threefold Pauline principle of faith (de fide), hope (spe), and love (caritate). Of Augustine's other writings the De Trinitate and De Doctrina Christiana are regarded as important contributions to theology. His De Civitate or City of God was epoch making. The Church is regarded as the kingdom of God on earth and its government and worship as royal institutions. However, it started a trend of thought which finally resulted in the identification of God's spiritual kingdom with the visible organization of the Church, and thus gave impetus to the Roman Catholic position against which later Protestantism objected and still objects. 

 

Another work of this period is sometimes classified as theology, the Commonitorium of Vincent of Lerins (d. c. 450) which supports the doctrines of the Church by reference to the Church Fathers. It is not, however, strictly dogmatic but rather a systematic exposition of Church tradition. 

 

The third and last attempt at Systematic Theology during this period was a contribution from the East by John of Damascus (c. 700-760, date uncertain), and marks the close of the Earlier Period. The title of this work is De Fide Orthodoxa or the Summary of the Orthodox Faith, and by many is considered the first work worthy to be known as a Systematic Theology. It is the third section of a larger work entitled Fons Scientia or Fountain of Knowledge something on the order of a modern religious encyclopedia. The first two sections of Capita Philosophica which contain a brief treatise on the Categories of Aristotle, and a Compendium of Heresies, numbering one hundred and three, are relatively unimportant. The third section is sometimes known also as "An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith," and was a textbook at once philosophical and ecclesiastical. John of Damascus was to the East what Thomas Aquinas was to the West, and by Briggs is thought to hold even a higher position as a doctor of the universal Church. On account of his general positions being those of the School of Constantinople, he is the normal theologian of the Greek Church. Theophanes states that he was called Chrysorrhoas, "Stream of Gold" - literally pouring forth gold-"because of that grace of the spirit which shines like gold both in his doctrine and in his life." 

 

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

 

The Mediaeval Period covers nearly seven hundred years, and extends from the death of John of Damascus to the beginning of the Reformation (A.D. 754-1517). It is pre-eminently the period of the doctors or schoolmen, and is frequently called the Scholastic Period. Turner in his History of Philosophy, and Kurtz in his Church History subdivide this period into four main divisions. "From the tenth century, almost completely destitute of any scientific movement, the so-called Saeculum Obscurum, there sprang forth the first buds of scholarship without, however, any distinct impress upon them of scholasticism. In the eleventh century scholasticism began to show itself, and that in the form of dialectic, both skeptical and dogmatic. In the twelfth century mysticism assumed an independent place alongside of dialectic, carried on a war of extermination against skeptical dialectic, and finally appeared in a more peaceful aspect, contributing material to the positive dogmatic dialectic. In the thirteenth century dialectic scholasticism gained the complete ascendancy, and reached its highest glory in the form of dogmatism in league with mysticism., and never, in the persons of its greatest representatives, in opposition to it" (KURTZ, Church Hist., II, p. 81). 

 

The earlier part of this period, to the beginning of the eleventh century, while a Saeculum Obscurum, as to outstanding scholarship, was not so as to the events of church history. It was marked by constant strife in both church and state. In the Eastern Church there was the controversy over images, in which the Iconduli as image worshipers triumphed over the Iconoclasts or image-breakers. It was during this period also, that the great controversy arose over the insertion of the word filioque in the Western Creed, a controversy which finally resulted in the separation of the Eastern and Western Churches. From this one word, filioque, by which is meant the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son as well as from the Father, two great systems of theology arose, widely different in both material and type. The Eastern theology was contemplative and mystical, and sought to teach by symbol rather than creed; the theology of the West was more analytical and progressive, and taught more by the logical presentation of truth as found in the creeds and confessions. The principal theologians of this period were Alcuin (735-804), a great teacher whose writings mostly concerned the doctrine of the Trinity. He was a tutor of Rabanus Maurus (776-856) known as the greatest teacher in Germany. Alcuin was himself an assistant of Charlemagne in his attempt at the revival of learning, and under his care the monastery of Tours became a great center of theological learning. Another great theologian of this period was John Scotus Erigena (c. 815-875), known as "the father of scholastic theology." In addition to his De Divisione Naturae, a system of natural and speculative theology, for which he claimed a common source in the Divine Wisdom, he also wrote a treatise, De Divina Praedestinatione, directed against Gottschalk and his high Augustinian position on predestination. Other and     

 

"The pupils of Rabanus," says Briggs, "teaching in various monasteries in Northern and Western Europe, greatly enhanced theological education." Of Alcuin it was said that he distributed "the honey of the sacred writings," "the wine of ancient learning," and "the apples of grammatical subtlety."  Rabanus has this interesting paragraph: "If anyone would master the Scriptures, he must first of all diligently find out the amount of history, allegory, anagoge and trope there may be in the part under consideration, for there are four senses to the Scriptures, the historical, the allegorical, the tropological and the analogical, which we call the daughters of Wisdom. Through these Wisdom feeds her children. To those who are young and beginning to learn, she gives the milk of history; to those advancing in the faith the bread of al1egory; those who are truly and constantly doing good so that they abound therein, she satisfies with the savory meat of tropology; while finally, those who despise earthly things and ardently desire the heavenly, she fills to the full with the wine of anagoge. - SCHAFF, Hist. Chr. Ch., IV, p. 719.

 

lesser writers of this period were Strabo (809-849) who was the originator of the Glossa Ordinaris, or brief commentaries on the Scripture. He is known also for his Vision of Wettin which Sandys calls "an early precursor of Dante's Divine Comedy." Servetus Lupus (805-862), a pupil of Rabanus, wrote a treatise on predestination. The works of Rabanus were more exegetical than theological and included commentaries on both the Bible and the Apocrypha. To him is attributed also the great hymn of Pentecost, Veni Creator Spiritus (Cf. further, BRIGGS, Hist. Th., II, pp. 4-7). 

 

The latter part of this period, beginning with the eleventh century and extending to the sixteenth, is known as the Scholastic Period, in both philosophy and theology. The rise of Mohammedanism in the East did much to bring about the transfer of theology from the churches to the schools in the West. Of this period, the first two centuries - the eleventh and the twelfth - were preparatory, and are characterized by the subordination of philosophy to theology. The schools accepted the theological doctrines as they were delivered to them by the Church, and assuming their truth sought to adjust them to human reason and deduce from them whatever corollaries were possible. Yet it is this period which marks the beginning of Systematic Theology. Following John of Damascus, who represented the theology of the East, were Anselm, Abelard, and Peter Lombard who marked the beginning of systematic treatises in the West. Anselm (1033-1109) was the first to attempt a rational theory of the atonement, and his Cur Deus Homo, as well as his Monologium and Proslogium, was an influential contribution to the literature of theology. Abelard (1079-1142) is known especially for his conceptualism in philosophy, a mediating position between the realism of Anselm and the nominalism of Roscelinus (1050-1100). His two principal theological works are De unitate et Trinitate Divina, which was condemned at Soissons under the title, Theologia Christiana, and Introductio ad Theologam. Peter Lombard (1100-1164) represented one of the earliest attempts toward a systematization of doctrine in the West. 

 

The thirteenth century represents the period of perfection in scholasticism. Philosophy is here characterized by a friendly alliance with theology, rather than as subordinate to it. The revival of Aristotelian philosophy gave to the theologians a new principle of co-ordination and systematization. The theology of this period is therefore, the doctrines of the fathers systematized according to Aristotle. While in the former period, Systematic Theology took the form of Sententiae or sentences from the Fathers, arranged in systematic order under certain rubrics, in this period it took the character of Summa Theologiae, which in reality were independent systems of theology. Duns Scotus (1276-1308), was born shortly after the death of Thomas Aquinas, and though he lived only about thirty-three years, began a movement in philosophy and theology, which finally resulted in the downfall of scholasticism, and the ushering in of the period of the Reformation. 

 

The Development of Theology in the Scholastic Period. The first great systematic work of the Scholastic Period was Peter Lombard's Libri Sententiarum Quattuor, or Four Books of Sentences. These were an arrangement of excerpts in systematic order from the writings of Augustine and other Church Fathers. The first book treats of God, the Second, of creatures; the Third, of redemption; and the Fourth, of the sacraments and last things. It was adopted as a textbook by the Lateran Council (1215) and used as a text in theology for more than five hundred years. Peter Lombard, known as the Magister Sententiarum was a pupil of Abelard. Previous to this there were other books of sentences such as Hugo of St. Victor, Summa Sententiarum, and Robert Pulleyn, Sententiarum, but these were not as extensive as that of Peter Lombard. 

The second great treatise on theology during the Scholastic Period, was the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, a work of great value and a source book even in modern times. 

 

THE REFORMATION PERIOD

 

The preceding age was characterized by a systematizing of the results of the Polemic Period, but the Reformation becomes again a period of controversies and creed formulations, thus marking the transition from the medieval to the modern world. The Reformation as such was the outgrowth of the Renaissance. It was in fact, a continuation of the Renaissance as it affected matters of religion, especially in Germany and England. Reuchlin and Erasmus have been called the two eyes of Germany, the one on account of his knowledge of Hebrew language and literature; the other because of his Greek learning and labors. A recent writer traces the development of thought through the four Johns - John Duns Scotus, John Tauler, John Huss and John Wesley, and then adds a fifth and a sixth-John Wessel and John Reuchlin. 

 

The most important event of this period, and that which gave rise to the development of two radically different types of theology, was the separation of the Church into two main divisions, Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Since that time each type has developed into a large body of divinity. While there are fundamental unities, the differences are manifest at almost every essential point in theology. The Roman Catholic positions were expressed in the Tridentine Decrees, formulated by the Council of Trent (1545-1563). They were in effect a complete system of Roman Catholic theology, and were wrought out by the indefatigable labors of the schoolmen in the universities of the Church. The positions of the Protestant Reformation were expressed in the Formula of the Concord (1580) and later in the Canons of the Synod of Dort (1618-1619). Protestantism accepted the teachings of the creeds of Nicaea, Constantinople and Chalcedon, and also in the main the Augustinian doctrines of sin and grace. It rejected the absolute authority of ecclesiastical tradition and the findings of the Church Councils. It maintained the supreme authority of the Scriptures in faith and morals, the universal priesthood of believers, and the doctrine of justification by faith alone. 

 

The Theology of the Reformation Period. The theology of the Reformation Period falls into two broad divisions - the Lutheran and the Reformed. The Lutheran may in general be characterized as more deeply sacramentarian, while the Reformed is more intellectualistic and doctrinal. Luther and Melanchthon are the representatives of the former, and Zwingli and Calvin of the latter. Luther and Zwingli were primarily the reformers, and Melanchthon and Calvin the theologians of early Protestantism. In a discussion of the Lutheran theologians, however, it would not do to pass by Martin Luther himself (1483-1546), whose chief work De Servo Arbitno written in 1525 has been compared to a doctrinal manifesto. But the first systematic theologian of the Reformation period was Melanchthon (1497-1560), who published his Loci Communes in 1521. This work ran through eighty editions during the lifetime of the author, and gave its name to countless successors. It is characteristic of the practical spirit of the Reformation that the Loci of Melanchthon grew out of his lectures on the Epistle to the Romans and he treated the various topics in the order in which they occurred in that epistle. While Zwingli (1484-1531) is not generally regarded as a theologian, he published in 1525 his Commentarius de Vera et Falsa Religione, a dogmatic work which begins with a discussion of religion, and follows with the usual order of theology. The work stresses the sovereignty of God and absolute predestination. The epoch making work of Reformed theology was Calvin's Institutio Christianae Religionis

Among the earlier followers of Melanchthon were Strigel (1514-1569), Loci Theologici; Chemnitz (1522-1586), Loci Theologici; and Selneccer (1530-1592), Institutio Relig. Christ. In connection with Calvin, two other Swiss divines are worthy of mention, Ursinus (1534-1583) and Olevianus (1536-1587) authors of the Heidelberg Catechism.

 

idea like that of Zwingli is the sovereignty of God, and the arrangement is essentially Trinitarian. 

The Controversies of the Reformation Period. The controversial periods in Church History are usually regarded as barren and uninteresting. It is true that they are never accompanied by either the systematic development of theology or the spiritual force of evangelism, but only in this way it seems, could the materials of truth be prepared for later systematization and thence become the ground for great periods of spiritual revival. No earnest student of theology can afford to overlook the importance of these controversies, nor once he gives them his attention can he fail to admire the intellectual acuteness and moral heroism of these defenders of the faith. We can but enumerate them here as a suggestion for further study, and give them in historical order. 

1. The First Eucharistic Controversy (1524-1529). This controversy was between Luther and Carlstadt (1481-1541) and also between Zwingli and those who upheld the Mass. Zwingli's positions were independent of Luther who could have tolerated them had he not thought them associated with the teachings of Carlstadt. As early as 1524 Luther wrote that "Carlstadt's poison is spreading in Switzerland." 

2. The Anabaptist Controversy (1525) was concerned with the subjects and modes of baptism. 

3. The Antinomian Controversy (1527-1566) grew out of the extreme statements of John Agricola, who insisted upon justification by faith in such a manner as to minify allegiance to the law. 

 

4. The Adiaphoristic Controversy (1548) concerned certain questions of faith and morals. In its earlier form it was concerned with the question as to whether or not there was any doctrine which was purely neutral as to right or wrong. Melanchthon and Bugenhagen asserted that there were such neutral doctrines, while Placeus and Westphal held to the negative. Thomas Aquinas attempted to make a distinction between right and wrong per se, and right and wrong in the concrete. In the seventeenth century it broke out again; Spener and the pietists denying any neutral positions while the opposers of the pietists affirmed that there were such. 

 

5. The Synergistic Controversy (1543-1580) concerned the relation of the human and divine elements in salvation. The followers of Melanchthon affirmed that there was co-operation between the divine and the human, the Flacians denied that the sinner could be other than purely passive. The Formula of Concord rather favored the latter position. Calvinism in the main is monogeristic, while Arminianism is strictly synergistic. 

6. The Osiandric Controversy (1549-1552) had to do with the nature of justification, Osiander (1498-1552) maintaining that it consists in the infusion of essential righteousness, or the divine nature. His position exhibits the confusion of justification with sanctification found in Roman Catholic theology, though Osiander himself was a staunch Protestant. This view of justification has never found acceptance in Protestant theology. 

7. The Second Eucharistic Controversy (1552) was between Luther and Zwingli, and served to develop and clarify the differences between the Lutheran and Reformed Churches. Zwingli denied (a) that the body of Christ corporeally eaten does or can confirm the faith; (b) that the body of Christ corporeally or naturally eaten can or does forgive sin; (c) that the body of Christ is corporeally present in the Eucharist as soon as the words, "This is my body," are spoken over the elements. This Luther never taught: (d) that the body of Christ can be corporeally present in the elements. Luther on the other hand, asserted (a) that in the Eucharist Christ is present only to faith; (b) that whoever accepts the miracle of the incarnation has no ground for doubting the presence of Christ in and with the elements; (c) that Christ is not shut up in heaven. This Zwingli never taught: (d) that it is necessary for Christ's body and blood to be present in the Eucharist to assure the believer of the forgiveness of sins. 

 

8. The Majoristic Controversy (1559) concerned the nature of good works. Major declared that good works were essential to salvation, while Amsdorf, who led the opposition, declared them to be detrimental. The dispute was settled by the Formula of Concord which took the middle ground and laid the foundations for the generally accepted Protestant doctrine, which is, that good works are necessary as a consequence of faith, but not necessary as a condition of justification. 

 

9. The Arminian Controversy (1560-1619) dealt with the doctrine of grace. The Arminians, so-called from the type of theology represented, remonstrated against five points in the Calvinistic theology. On account of this they were called Remonstrants. The Arminians were excluded from the Reformed Church, and their teachings condemned by the Synod of Dort. The Arminian theology forms the basis of the Wesleyan teaching as held by the great body of Methodism. It is also the basis of the theology of the Church of England after the time of Bishop Cranmer. The importance of this controversy demands further attention, and will be more fully discussed under the doctrines of grace. 

10. The Deistic Controversy in England (1581- 1648) was a form of the rationalistic controversy which appeared at a later period. 

 

11. The Pietistic Controversy (1650). This controversy occurred a little later than the century in question but is placed here because of its connection with the earlier controversies. It was occasioned by a reaction against the dogmatic formalism of the times. The reformers had emphasized the efficacy of faith in Christ as the means of securing the forgiveness of sin, but the controversies which arose among them gradually gave a too exclusively doctrinal and polemical character to the sermons and writings of both the Lutheran and Calvinistic divines. The reaction took the form of a renewed emphasis upon feeling and good works. The direct originator of this movement was Philip Jacob Spener (1635-1705), who at meetings held in his home, repeated his sermons, expounded passages from the New Testament, and induced those present to join in conversation on religious subjects. From this they were given the name of Pietists. The purpose of Spener was to combine the Lutheran emphasis upon Bible doctrine, with the Reformed tendency to a vigorous life. 

 

12. The Placean Controversy (1633-1685). This controversy also falls outside the limits of the Reformation period. It was concerned with "mediate imputation." 

Thus through struggle and debate, often with much odium theologicum attached, 'and sometimes with practices that must be viewed with disapproval, were the doctrines of the Church wrought out and preserved. Great issues were at stake, and men of intellectual acuteness and moral heroism rushed to the defense of the faith. We must believe, also, that above all was a superintending Providence which overruled the failures and shortcomings of men, and that the Holy Spirit as a Guide into all truth, Himself shaped the destinies of the Church. 
 

THE CONFESSIONAL PERIOD

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (c. 1600-1800) represent the Confessional Period in theological development. During this time the doctrinal statements of the larger communions were worked out in systematic form and given to the Church as varying types of Christian Dogmatics. The theologians of this period are frequently classified as Protestant Scholastics, due to the fact that they followed in the main the same principles of systematization as were observed by the older schoolmen. Two phases of this subject demand our attention: (I) the various confessional types, and (II) the different forms which theology assumed, due to the varying influences of external circumstances. These divisions will be treated from the genetic viewpoint. 
 

I. 

The different types of theology are found within the New Testament itself, and mark the beginning of the developments found in later periods of dogmatic history. Peter represented the practical tendency; James a combination of the practical and philosophical, giving us the Wisdom Literature of the New Testament; Paul was a logician and systematizer, and gives us the Systematic Theology of the New Testament; while John was primarily a seer, announcing dogmatically what he had seen by intuition. The differentiating features of these types of theology will best be set forth by the contrasts found in chronological order in the history of the Church: (1) Eastern and Western; (2) Roman Catholic and Protestant; (3) Lutheran and Reformed; and (4) Reformed and Arminian. 

The Eastern and the Western Churches. The East and the West hold in common the three Ecumenical Creeds, and also the findings of the four Ecumenical Councils - Nicaea (325); Constantinople (381); Ephesus (431); and Chalcedon (451). They separated over the controversy which began with the insertion of the word filioque in the creed, but perhaps the separation was due more to political and ecclesiastical reasons than to the doctrinal point of a single or double procession of the Spirit. There were two rival pontiffs, one at Constantinople in the East and one at Rome in the West. The decline of the Eastern Empire greatly aided in the development of power at Rome. After their separation they developed two distinct types of theology. That of the East was more philosophical and speculative, that of the West more progressive and practical. To the former with its fondness for metaphysical subtleties, we are indebted for the doctrines of the Trinity and the Nature of the Godhead. To the West with its more practical trend, we are indebted for the doctrines of grace and the organization of the Church. 

The Confessional Standards of the Eastern Church are the three creeds mentioned above, to which were added later, the Confessio Gennadii (1453), and the Confessio Orthodoxa (1643). The doctrinal differences between the Eastern and Western Churches are these - the East (1) rejects the doctrine of the papacy; (2) modifies the seven sacraments; (3) denies the immaculate conception of the virgin; (4) circulates the Bible in the vernacular; and' (5) asserts its own supremacy, viewing the Church of Rome as the eldest born among the schisms and heresies. 

The Roman Catholic and the Protestant Churches. As different types of theology developed in the Eastern and Western Churches, so in the West itself, the differentiating features of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism were marked and distinct. The Roman Catholic Church is sacramentarian, the Protestant Church is evangelical. Evangelical Christianity holds that God saves men directly by entering into personal and spiritual relations with them. Roman Catholicism, on the contrary, teaches that the Church is the one divinely appointed instrument, through which spiritual blessings are communicated by means of the sacraments. Evangelical Christianity maintains that the true Church is composed of the whole number of those redeemed through Christ, and that its authority is conditioned by the immediate spiritual relation existing between its constituent members, and the one living Lord who is its Divine Head. While Roman Catholic theology technically admits that there is an invisible Church, practically it identifies it with the visible organization, which it maintains is commissioned to accomplish a certain work in the world. It further maintains that it derives its authority from this commission alone, apart from any personal relation existing spiritually between Christ and its members, or even the officials in whom the authority is vested. Thus in the West the two branches build up an extensive though widely divergent theology. 

The Roman Catholic Standards are the three creeds, and as especially directed against Protestantism, the Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, (1545-1563); Professio Fidei Tridentina (1564), which is the creed of Pius IV; to which were added later the Vatican decisions on the Immaculate Conception (1854), and Papal Infallibility (1870). 

Protestant Theology and Its Divergent Types. While the divergent views of the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Churches center largely in the conception of the Church itself, these differences have been developed into two systems of theology which are opposed to each other at almost every point. First, Protestantism maintains the universality of the priesthood of believers, as over against a special order of priesthood held by Roman Catholicism; second, it believes that grace is communicated through the truth received in faith, as over against that which vests it solely in the sacraments; third, it exalts the preaching of the Word above the sacramental ministry at the altar; and fourth, it insists that grace is received directly from Christ through the Spirit, and that this gives membership in the Church as Christ's spiritual body, as over against the teaching that a spiritual relation with Christ must be established through the Church. The evangelical view that the Church must be approached through Christ, rather than Christ through the Church, not only marks a distinction in theology, but gives rise also to widely different types of Christian experience. 

In the discussion of Protestant theology we shall consider the four following types: (1) Lutheran Dogmatics; (2) Reformed Dogmatics; (3) Arminian Dogmatics; and (4) Socinian Dogmatics. 

1. The Lutheran Dogmatic. The Lutheran Standards are the Augsburg Confession with its Apology (1530); the Smalcald Articles (1537); Luther's Smaller and Larger Catechisms (1529), and the Formulas of Concord (1577). There have been three marked tendencies in Lutheranism, first, a movement toward the end of the sixteenth century and the earlier years of the seventeenth which manifested a renewed attachment to the positions of Luther as opposed to those of Melanchthon; second, a reaction against strict Lutheranism in favor of the earlier Ecumenical Creeds; and third, the mediating positions. The Lutheran theologians will be grouped under this classification. 

In the movement toward a return to Luther may be mentioned Leonard Hutter (1563-1616) who is commonly known as "Luther Redivivus." His chief work, Compendium Locorum Theologicorum, was published in 1610, and consisted of extracts from Lutheran standards. 

A second edition was published by Twesten in 1855. Here also must be classed John Gerhard (1582-1637), who was regarded as the most learned theologian of his age. His great work Loci Communes Theologici was published in nine volumes (1610-1622), and far excels the work of Hutter in systematic arrangement. Chemnitz (1522-1586) in his earlier years followed Melanchthon but later turned to Lutheranism. He is described as "clear and accurate, the most learned of the disciples of Melanchthon." In opposition to strict Lutheranism, George Calixtus (1586-1656) started a reactionary movement by insisting on a return to the great Ecumenical Creeds. While he followed Melanchthon rather than Luther, he was known as the "syncretistic theologian" and endeavored to find the truth in both the Reformed and the Romanist positions. His chief work was the Epitome Theologiae, and represents a change from the analytical to the synthetic method of treatment. Aside from Danaeus, he is the first theologian to separate between Ethics and Dogmatics. The opponent of Calixtus was Calovius (1612-1686) who in defense of Lutheranism undertakes to confute the errors which arose after the time of Gerhard. His work is entitled Systema Locorum Theologicorum and was published in twelve volumes. It follows the scholastic style. Akin to this, but even more dialectical in style was the Theologic Didactico-polemica Theologiea of Quenstedt (1617-1688). Hollaz (1648-1713) whose work consists largely of extracts from Gerhard, Calovius and others, and shows the influence of mysticism, marks in some sense the transition from the severely scholastic theology of the seventeenth century to the pietistic type of the eighteenth century. The mediating theologians of the Jena school held a position midway between that of Calixtus and Hutter, the chief representatives being Musaeus (16131681) and Baier (1647-1695). The latter's work, Compendium Theologiae Positivae, became an important and popular textbook for the study of the old Lutheran Dogmatic. 

2. The Reformed Dogmatic. A movement similar to that noticed in Lutheranism is found in even a more marked manner in Reformed theology. Starting with the theology of Calvin, there was a movement in the direction of overstraining his position which led practically to "hyper-Calvinism." Against this was a reactionary movement which could not be called a return to Calvinism but to an avowed modification of it. This was represented by the Amyraldists and the Arminians, but the latter must be regarded not merely as a modification of Reformed theology but a distinct type of Dogmatics. 

The Reformed theologians which immediately followed Zwingli and Calvin, were able representatives of the true Calvinistic positions. Among these may be mentioned Peter Martyr (1500-1562); Chamier (1565-1621); Wolleb (1536-1626) author of Compendium Theologiae Christianae; and Wendelin (1584-1652) whose principal works are Compendium Christianae Theologiae (1634) and Christianae Theologia Systema Majus (1656) both of these being expositions of the strict Calvinism of that period. Theodore Beza (1519-1605) who produced no distinctly dogmatic work, began nevertheless, a powerful movement toward hyper-Calvinism which greatly influenced the theology of his time. Dr. William Twisse (1575-1646) wrote a book in 1648, the title of which translated is "The Riches of God's Love unto the Vessels of Mercy Consistent with His Absolute Hatred or Reprobation of the Vessels of Wrath." McPherson says that this affords "perhaps the very best example of supralapsarianism developed by fearless application of logic, without necessary qualifications or reservations, to the doctrinal principles of Calvinism" (MacPHERSON, Christian Dogmatics, p. 63). Following him was Francis Turretin of Geneva (the father) (1623-1687) whose Institutio Theologiae Elencticae shows the influence of the rising federal school of theology, and Jean Alphonso Turretin (the son) (1671-1737) who sought to modify the strict Calvinism of the father, and also to promote a union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. Turretin, the younger, and Benedict Pictet (1655-1725), his contemporary, may both be classed as federalists and were influenced by the Cartesian philosophy. 

The reactionary movement in the Reformed Church of this period was begun by Cocceius (1603-1669) who renounced the scholastic method and accepted in its stead a purely biblical method. He distributed his materials according to the covenant idea and became in this sense a federalist. His principal work was entitled Summa Doctrinae de Foedere et Testamentis Dei published in two volumes. Witsius (1636-1708) attempted to reconcile the Federalists and the Orthodox party but without success. The intermediate group was represented in England by John Owen (1616-1683), Richard Baxter (1616-1685); and Thomas Ridgeley (1666-1734). The School of Saumur in France was represented by two outstanding theologians, Amyraldus (1596-1664) who made an attempt to modify the positions of the Synod of Dort; and La Place, or Placaeus (1606-1655) as he is commonly known, who advanced the theory of mediate imputation of Adam's sin. The Calvinism of the School of Saumur did not meet with approval on the part of the Reformed Churches of Geneva and was condemned by the Formula Consensus at the Synod of Charenton (1675). The Scotch Presbyterian theologians were Thomas Boston (1676-1732); John Dick (17641833) and Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847). Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758 and Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803) were the chief American theologians of the period. 

3. The Arminian Dogmatic. The Arminian or Remonstrant school arose in Holland at the opening of the seventeenth century, and came as a protest against the Calvinism of that day. James Arminius (1560-1609) was "a learned and able divine, of a meek Christian spirit." As a youth he was precocious and studied theology under Theodore Beza, a rigid Calvinist and the leading spirit in the development. of hyper-Calvinism. In later life, Arminius was drawn away from the earlier positions of Reformed theology, and while a professor at Leyden, broke into a fierce conflict with Gomarius (1563-1641). Arminius did not live long after this, but his death witnessed no cessation of the controversy. Following James Arminius, from whom this type of theology took its name, may be mentioned Simon Episcopius (1583-1643), who after the death of Arminius became the leader of the movement and carried on the controversy before the Synod of Dort. His Institutiones Theologicae, published in 1643 is the clearest and most authoritative statement on earlier Arminianism. Episcopius was opposed at Dort by Gomarius, and by Maccovius (1588-1644). Voetius of Utrecht (1588-1676) was the bitterest and most violent of all the opposers of Arminianism, his Selectae Disputationes Theologicae being directed against the Arminians, the Cartesians and the Cocceians. Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) was perhaps the most outstanding theologian of the Dutch school. He is celebrated both for his "governmental theory of the atonement" and for his contribution to international law. Chief among his apologetical writings are De Veritate Chr. Religionis, and Defensio Fidei Catholicae de Satisfactione Christi, this latter being directed against the Pelagians and Socinians but upholding the Arminian positions. Philipp van Limborch (1633-1702) not only by his life span linked the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but marks also the transition to rationalism. He was a professor of theology in Utrecht and a friend of John Locke, the English philosopher. His exegesis of the New Testament proved to be popular and enduring, and his Institutes of Christian Theology formed the most complete and best known exposition of the earlier Arminianism. 

Among the Puritans in England, the most noted representative of evangelical Arminianism was John Goodwin (1593-1665). His Redemption Redeemed published in 1651 dealt with the questions of election, reprobation and perseverance, and his Imputatio Fidei or a Treatise on Justification (1642) was greatly valued by John Wesley and Richard Watson. His Exposition of the Ninth Chapter of Romans and On Being Filled with the Spirit were further contributions to the evangelical cause. John William Fletcher (1729-1785), Vicar of Madeley has been called the "Arminian of the Arminians." He was the apologist of early Methodism and his Checks to Antinomianism is still the best treatise on this subject. He is perhaps best known for his saintly character and his spiritual ministry. John Wesley (1703-1791) was the Father of Methodism both as to the doctrine and the polity of the Church. The development of later Arminianism commonly known as Wesleyanism occurs in the following century. 

While not strictly of the Arminian type of theology, and yet thoroughly evangelical, we may mention here, George Fox (1624-1691) the founder of the Society of Friends or Quakers, and George Barclay (1648-1690) whose Apology represents the doctrinal standards of the society. The English Churchmen of this period were Richard Hooker (1553-1600); Gilbert Burnett (1643-1715)) and John Pearson (1613-1685) whose works on the Creed, the Parables and the Miracles are still standard authorities. 

4. The Socinian Dogmatic. Frequently the Socinian theology is not regarded as a distinct type of dogmatics, but since the movement dates back to the Reformation period it is best treated here. Laelius Socinus (the uncle) (1525-1562) and Faustus Socinus (the nephew) (1539-1604) are the founders of what is known in modern times as Unitarianism. Socinianism takes its name from the former, and the latter is regarded as the founder of the sect. Their writings are collected in the Biblotheca Fratrum Polonorum. In the seventeenth century the doctrines were defended by Crell (1590-1631) who wrote a treatise against the Trinitarian conception of God, and Schlichting (1592-1662) who wrote a confession of faith for Polish Christians. The father of English Unitarianism was John Biddle (1615-1662) who wrote a series of tracts on The Faith of One God, who is only the Father; and of one Mediator between God and men, who is only the man Christ Jesus; and of one Holy Spirit, the gift of God: asserted and defended. The doctrinal standards are found in the Racovian Catechism. This appeared as the Rakow Catechism in the Polish language in 1605, immediately after the death of Socinus, and was completed on the basis of his writings by Statorius, Schmalz, Moscorovius, and Volkel. Latin translations appeared in 1665, 1680 and 1684. 
 

II. 

We have now to consider some of the forms which theology assumed due to the varying influences of external circumstances. We shall notice briefly (1) The Pietistic Movement; (2) The Rationalistic Movement; and (3) The Biblical Movement. 

1. The Pietistic Movement. A strong opposition grew up in the latter part of the seventeenth and the earlier part of the eighteenth centuries against the barrenness of scholasticism, which resulted in the Pietistic Movement in Germany. Andreae (1586-1654) and Spener (1635-1705) had waged war against a dead orthodoxy and proclaimed the need for a theologia regenitorum or a regeneration of theology. Spener advocated the substitution of a prayerful study of the Holy Scriptures for the official theology of his time. His special work, however, was m Eschatology, where he attempted to fill in that which he considered lacking in the Dogmatics of Luther. His views of the millennium were later worked out systematically by two of his pupils, Johann Wilhelm Peterson (1694-1727), a Lutheran mystic who was expelled from Luneburg because of his millenarian views; and Johann Konrad Dippel (1673-1734) who was known as a religious enthusiast. The work of Spener was continued by Francke (1663-1727) who was the founder of the Francke Institute at Halle. Benedict Carpzon (1679-1767) was a decided adversary of the whole Pietistic movement and under his leadership the breach widened between Scholasticism and Pietism. There developed in the minds of the people a repugnance to Scholasticism which was typically displayed in the writings of Hollaz, who has been called "the last of the orthodox theologians."

2. The Rationalistic Movement. Here there begins to be felt the varying influence of the systems of philosophy upon dogmatics. There was a school of Descartes in Holland represented by Bekker (1634-1698). His book, Strong Food for the Perfect, aroused suspicions of Socinianism and later he was deposed from the ministry. There were also schools of Wolff (1659-1754) and Leibnitz (1646-1716) in Germany and these greatly influenced theological study. Among the theologians of the school of Wolff may be mentioned Stapfer (1708-1775) whose Theological Institutes were widely known; Baumgarten (1706-1757); Endemann (d. 1789); Bernsau (d. 1763) and Wyttenbach (d. 1779). These theologians of the earlier rationalistic period were not unorthodox and had as their motive the exact demonstration of dogma in such a clear manner that there could be no true opposition offered to it. However, their very attempts at accurate statement developed an intellectualism that later gave rise to the skeptical tendencies of rationalism. The separation between Natural Theology and Revealed Theology became widened, and Natural Theology was exalted at the expense of revelation. This issued in the Deism of England and the period of the "enlightenment" as it is generally termed, in philosophy. Here are the beginnings of the Rationalistic Period of the early nineteenth century which set itself up in such strong opposition to the truth of Christianity. After the Reformation had freed theology in a large measure, from the bonds of scholasticism, other philosophies soon took its place. Semler built upon the philosophy of Wolff and Leibnitz, and consequently represented the Scriptures as having merely a local and temporary character. Michaelis (1716-1784) and Doederlein (1714-1789) followed Semler (1725-1791), both being aided by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). The philosophy of Herder (1744-1803) and Jacobi (1743-1819) exemplified greater spirituality and prepared the way for the "Father of Modern Theology" Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768-1834). 

3. The Biblical Movement. Against the growing tendency toward rationalism there arose a Biblical Theistic tendency which served to preserve the truth against the attacks of the rationalists. Bengel (16871751) with a firm faith in the inspiration and absolute authority of the Bible was perplexed at the great number of variations in the text. He set himself to study, and after twenty years published his Apparatus Criticus, which became the starting point for modern textual criticism of the New Testament. In his Essay on the Right Way of Handling Divine Subjects he states that in brief it is to "put nothing into the Scriptures, but to draw everything from them, and suffer nothing to remain hidden that is really in them." Oetinger (1702-1782) followed Bengel in theology and Boehme in philosophy. He maintained that life is not only the fruit of do6trine but also its starting point and basis. Buddeus (1667-1729) was a man of genuine piety and learning, and by the conciliatory position he occupied, exerted a profound Christian influence. His Institutiones Theologiae Moralis (1711) removed the casuistical elements from the Protestant treatment of Christian morals. Ernesti (1707-1781) was noted for his proficiency in Classical Languages, Rhetoric and Theology. His principal work was Institutio Interpretis N.T. (1761) which opened a new epoch in the history of Hermeneutics. J. H. Michaelis (1668-1738) made valuable contributions to Old Testament criticism and exegesis. He lectured at Halle and was closely associated with Francke. J. D. Michaelis (1717-1791) was recognized as an indefatigable investigator, and a prolific writer. His exegetical works on both the Old and the New Testaments are numerous, his work on the Psalms being of special importance. 
 

THE MODERN PERIOD

Schleiermacher, the "Father of Modern Theology," may be said to have introduced into modern thought the vitality of the evangelical teaching, much as did his contemporary, John Wesley, in the field of religion. As over against the positions of the rationalists, he understood the Christian faith as something given, not merely in an external manner, but as having its seat in the consciousness. It was a consequence, therefore, not of rational thinking, but had its origin in the heart. Religion was a "feeling of dependence" and Christ and His redemption were made the center of his system of theology. As to the range of his influence Schleiermacher has been compared to Augustine and Calvin. So extensive does the history of Dogmatics become in the modern period, that it will be necessary for us to confine our thought to a mere classification of the greater theologians according to their particular schools. We shall consider the development of theology during this period under the following divisions. (1) The School of Schleiermacher; (2) The Rationalistic School; (3) The Mediating School; (4) Ritschl and His School; and (5) British and American Theology. 

1. The School of Schleiermacher. Schleiermacher and his successors are generally regarded as belonging to the transitional school, which marks the distinction between the thought of the medieval and that of the distinctly modern period. Here following Schieiermacher may be mentioned Alexander Schweitzer (1808-1888), who attempted to work out a system of theology based upon Christian consciousness, historical Christianity being the religion in which this ideal was realized. Schenkel (1813-1885) made conscience the distinct organ of religion. Lipsius (1830-1892) sought to develop a Christian Dogmatic purely from the standpoint of Christian consciousness, his threefold division being, (1) God-consciousness; (2) Self-consciousness; and (3) World-consciousness. Rothe (1799-1867) the pupil of Daub, occupied a position midway between rationalism and supernaturalism, and in this respect his theology is comparable to that of Schleiermacher. 

2. The Rationalistic School. This is sometimes known as the philosophical school, due to the fact that the theology of the period was largely influenced by philosophy-especially that of Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. Among the earlier followers of Hegel were Daub (1765-1836), Goschel (1784-1862), Hasse (1697-1783), Rosenkranz (1805-1879), Erdmann (1821-1905). and Marheineke (1780-1846). Daub was the teacher of Rothe, and shows the influence of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel in successive stages. Marheineke was a colleague of Schleiermacher and a thorough-going Hegelian. The outline of his System of Christian Doctrine is derived from the Hegelian triad: (1) the pure notion of God himself, embracing His nature and attributes; (2) God distinguishing Himself from Himself, the God-man, at once substance and subject. This embraces the subject of Christology and Soteriology. (3) God returning out of this distinction into eternal unity with Himself, which embraces the doctrine of the Trinity, the Administration of Grace, and the Kingdom of God. Biedermann (1819-1885) in his Christliche Dogmatik develops the principles of Hegelianism in a somewhat pantheistic manner. With the advent of Hegelianism in philosophy, it was asserted for a time that peace had been declared between belief and knowledge, and that theology presented the same truth in formal statement, that philosophy acknowledges in a higher conception. This self-deception, however, did not last long, and the school of Hegel split up into two parties, the first clinging to the orthodox faith, and the second making a sharp distinction between faith and knowledge as the highest wisdom. The left wing of Hegelianism was represented by Bauer (1792-1860) and the Tübingen School. Bauer applied Hegel's method of dialectical development to church history and the New Testament, and thus founded the Tubing School which became a center of rationalism and destructive criticism. It was in Strauss (1808-1874) that the most extreme positions were reached, of whose teachings it was said, that they resembled "Christian theology as a cemetery resembles a town." Here also we should mention as having in some sense been influenced by Hegel, but more evangelical in their teaching, Otto Pfleiderer (1839-1908) and Lipsius (1830-1892). Pfleiderer's Philosophy of Religion (1896) and his Evolution and Theology (1900) were widely influential in American thought during the latter part of the nineteenth century. 

3. The Mediating School. This is represented by a group of outstanding theologians who sought to maintain evangelical principles and yet combine them with the best thought of modern times. As showing the marked influence of Schieiermacher there should be mentioned first of all, the incomplete Dogmatik of Twesten (1789-1876), who was inclined toward ecclesiastical orthodoxy, and Nitzsch (1787-1868) whose System of Christian Faith was a vigorous attempt to unite Dogmatics and Ethics. As other outstanding members of this school we may mention Isaac A. Dorner (1809-1884) whose great work is entitled a System of Christian Doctrine. His rationalistic positions appear primarily in his doctrine of the Trinity and in his Christology. Bishop H. L. Martensen (1808-1884), a Danish writer and friend of Dorner, follows in general the teachings of Lutheranism, although in the later portion of his work entitled Christian Dogmatics he swings more to the Reformed position. Written in an attractive style, his great contribution to theological thought exerted a wide influence in the later nineteenth and earlier twentieth centuries. This influence was due perhaps to his attractive style, and to his unusual blending of mysticism and philosophical speculation. Thomasius (18021875) is classed among the new Lutherans and is known especially for his treatment of the Kenosis. Kahnis (18141888) inclined toward the Sabellian idea of the Trinity. Philippi (1809-1882) bases his dogmatic on the thought of fellowship, (1) Original fellowship with God; (2) the breach of fellowship; (3) objective restoration of fellowship through Christ; (4) subjective appropriation of fellowship with God; and (5) the future completion of the restored and appropriated fellowship. Martin Kahler of Halle (1835-1912) arranges his dogmatic in three divisions: (1) the confession of the need of salvation; (2) the confession of the possession of salvation; and (3) the confession of the hope of salvation. Ebrard presented the Reformed Dogmatic from a study of its sources in opposition to the principles of A. Schweitzer. J. P. Lange (1802-1884) in an elaborate work on dogmatics, starts with the Reformed principles and endeavors to harmonize these with later thought. 

More or less independent of any particular school may be mentioned Carl Hase of Jena, who though he accepted the rationalistic position in some measure, reached his conclusions in a manner independent of other thinkers. His chief theological work is the Evang. Dogmatik (1826). Here also may be mentioned Cramer (1723-1788), Baumgarten-Crusius (1788-1843), and especially the Philosophische Dogmatik of C. H. Weisse (1801-1866) written in an attempt to harmonize the various philosophical positions. J. Müller (1851-1878) contributed to the field of theology a masterly treatise on the Christian Doctrine of Sin (tr. 1868). Among the apologists of this period may be mentioned C. Ullman (1796-1865) and A. Tholuck (1799-1877). Continuing the supranaturalistic position of the former period are the names of A. Hahn (1792-1863) and J. T. Beck (1804-1878) the latter endeavoring to open a new pathway in theology by using a special terminology. He was a student at Tübingen but reacted against the rationalism prevalent there. He is usually classified as a follower of Schleiermacher, but allied himself with the earlier biblical realism of Bengel. It was against his teaching that Strauss reacted so violently. The names of A. Vinet (1797-1847), Godet (1812-1900) and Poulain (1807-1868) stand high in Switzerland and France, the latter being one of the strongest apologists against modern Naturalism. 

4. Ritschl and His School. Albrecht Ritschl of Bonn (1822-1889) may be said more than any other of this period, to have founded a distinct school of theology. His chief work, Justification and Reconciliation, is the third volume of a larger work setting forth his own positions. Ritschl rejects the scholastic position, and in fact all philosophy, maintaining that philosophy and theology have no valid connection with each other. He was a firm adherent of the historical movement and therefore insists strongly upon the recognition of the historical Christ, and the acceptance of the Scriptures as a record of revelation. His theory of knowledge is empirical, and confusion arose from an attempted union of the idealistic and realistic elements of knowledge, borrowed from Kant on the one hand and Lotze on the other. The term "value judgments" belongs peculiarly to Ritschl and his school. By these they are meant those judgments which are true and important only as they have value in producing emotional or other effects in the consciousness of the one who entertains them. This gave rise to certain phases of Higher Criticism in its destructive tendencies, such as the position that the miracles might not have been historical facts, and yet, since they produce the effect of omnipotent power, they have "value" for religion. Some of the more radical adherents of this position extended the value judgment to Christ himself, maintaining that the religious value could be dissociated from the historical background. 

Among the theologians classified as Ritschlians may be mentioned Gottschick (b. 1847), Hermann of Marburg (b. 1846), Hermann Schultz (b. 1836), and perhaps Adolf von Harnack (b. 1851). Julius Kaftan (b. 1848), the successor of Dorner at Berlin, modified Ritschl's position, abandoning the distinctions between scientific and religious knowledge; and Theodor Haering (b. 1848), more than any other of the Ritschlians returns closer to the Orthodox Church. 

5. British and American Theology. The earliest Methodist writings of a doctrinal character were John Wesley's Sermons, which together with his Notes and the Twenty-five Articles constitute the doctrinal standards of Methodism. John Fletcher, while in some sense the apologist of Methodism, was a member of the Established Church and Vicar of Madeley. The earliest Methodist writer to formulate a complete system of doctrine was Richard Watson (1781-1823) who published his Theological Institutes in 1823. This work was revised by Wakefield and with some additional material is found in Wakefield's Christian Theology. William Burton Pope (1822-1903) in his Compendium of Christian Theology, published in three volumes is the first British writer to compare favorably with Richard Watson. In America, Miner Raymond (1813-1897) published his Systematic Theology, a monumental work in three volumes (1877-1879); Thomas Neely Ralston, his Elements of Divinity (1847) which was revised and enlarged by the addition of his Evidences, Morals and Institutions of Christianity (1871). In its first form it was translated into Norwegian (1858) and in its enlarged form translated and published in the Chinese language in 1886. Henry Clay Sheldon published his History of Christian Doctrine in 1886 and his System of Christian Doctrine in 1903. John J. Tigert revised and published in 1888 the Systematic Theology of Thomas 0. Summers (1812-1882). John Miley's excellent work on Systematic Theology in two volumes appeared in 1892. Olin A. Curtis published his Christian Faith in 1905, S. J. Gamertfelder, his Systematic Theology (Evangelical Association) in 1913; and A. M. Hills, his Fundamental Christian Theology in 1931. In addition to these a number of smaller works have been published representative of the Arminian type of theology, among which are Bank's Manual of Christian Doctrine (1897); Binney's Theological Compend, (Binney and Steele) (1875); Field, Handbook of Christian Theology (1887); Ellyson, New Theological Compend (1905); Lowrey, Positive Theology (1853); Weaver, Christian Theology (1900). 

The Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the United States have depended largely upon German sources for their theological teaching. Knapp, Lectures on Christian Theology was translated by Leonard Woods (1831) and widely read in America. Nitzsch, System of Christian Doctrine (1849); Martensen, Christian Dogmatics, a Danish work translated from the German by William Urwick (1892); Van Oosterzee, Christian Dogmatics (translated 1874), and Schmid, Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (translated 1876) represent the principal evangelical works of Lutheranism. A more recent work, published in the United States is Stump, The Christian Faith (1932) 

The theologians of the Reformed Church represent two different schools. The Older Calvinism is represented by Charles Hodge (1797-1878) Systematic Theology; A. A. Hodge, the son (1823-1886) Outlines of Theology; Robert J. Breckinridge (1800-1871) The Knowledge of God Objectively Considered (1859) and The Knowledge of God Subjectively Considered (1860); William G. T. Shedd (1820-1894) Dogmatic Theology; Henry B. Smith (1815-1877) Introduction to Theology (1883), Systematic Theology (1884), a representative of the Christocentric viewpoint. These writers hold to the views of human depravity and divine grace as advocated by Augustine and Calvin and for this reason were known popularly as the Old School. The New School modified the older Calvinistic positions through a succession of writers from Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) to Horace Bushnell (1802-1876). These writers follow Jonathan Edwards in the following order: Joseph Bellamy (17191790), Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), Nathanael Emmons (1745-1840), Leonard Woods (1774-1854), Charles G. Finney (1792-1875), Nathaniel W. Taylor (1786-1858) and Horace Bushnell, who held to a more or less Sabellian view of the Trinity, and to the moral influence theory of the atonement. 

Other works of Reformed writers, are Gerhart, Institutes of the Christian Religion, William Adams Brown, Christian Theology in Outline (1906); Pond, Lectures on Christian Theology (1867); Dickie, Organism of Christian Truth (1930); John MacPherson, Christian Dogmatics (1898), and James Orr, Christian View of God and the World (1893). 

The Baptist theologians are A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology (1907), Alvah Hovey, Outline of Christian Theology (1870), William Newton Clarke, An Outline of Christian Theology (1917); Ezekiel Gilman Robinson, Christian Theology (1894); J. P. Boyce, Abstract of Systematic Theology (1887). 

The Anglican Theology is represented by Pearson On the Creed, Burnet, The Thirty-nine Articles, Bicknell, Thirty-nine Articles (a more recent work 1919, last edition 1936), Hall, Dogmatic Theology (a complete treatise in ten volumes), Mortimer, Catholic Faith and Practice, Lacey, Elements of Christian Doctrine, Percival, A Digest of Theology, Mason, The Faith of the Gospel, Litton, Introduction to Dogmatic Theology, William and Scannell, A Manual of Catholic Theology, and Darwell Stone, Outline of Christian Dogma.