CHRISTIAN ETHICS OR THE LIFE OF HOLINESS

Having considered the question of holiness as a doctrine and as an experience, it is but natural that we should now pass to a consideration of the same subject in its practical or ethical aspects. We have seen that a holy heart is the fundamental condition for holy living. It is specifically stated that we are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath before ordained that we should walk in them (Eph. 2:10). When, however, we pass from a consideration of Christian experience to the life consequent upon it, we are turning in some sense from the field of dogmatics to that of ethics. Dogmatics gives attention to doctrines, and answers the inquiry, What ought we to believe? Ethics seeks to answer the question, What ought we to do? Arminian theology has always given much attention to the morals and institutions of Christianity, as an examination of the works of Wesley, Watson, Clarke, Pope, Raymond, Summers, Ralston, and Lee will show. Dr. Miley also gives attention to the necessity of moral government, but treats it in relation to his governmental theory of the atonement. Our purpose, however, is not to consider the field of general or philosophical ethics; nor even the field of Christian ethics considered as a science, but only to examine more immediately the life of holiness as related to the doctrine and experience of entire sanctification. After a brief consideration of the Relation of Theology to Ethics; Revelation as the Source of Christian Ethics, and the Scriptural Basis of Ethics, we shall give our attention to the following: (I) The Development of Ethical Theory in the Church; (II) The Principles of Christian Ethics; and (III) Practical Ethics. This latter will be considered under the threefold division of (1) Theistic Ethics: or Duties We Owe to God; (2) Individual Ethics: or Duties We Owe to Ourselves ; and (3) Social Ethics: or Duties We Owe to Others.

The Relation of Theology to Ethics. As theology is the science of God and the mutual relations of God and man, so ethics as the science of duty, has to do with the end, the principles and motives of obligatory conduct. When the material of the two sciences is drawn wholly from nature, we have Natural Theology, and Natural or Naturalistic Ethics ; when it is drawn from Revelation, we have Revealed Theology, and Revealed or theological Ethics. There is no disharmony, however, between the two sources of material, since the one must

[It must be evident that the outward or ethical life of the Christian takes its character from the quality of the inner or spiritual life. The life of holiness is, therefore, simply the out-reachings of a holy heart. What this holiness is, General Superintendent Nease describes as follows: "The term holiness, when employed as referring to the experience of the believer, of necessity implies the act, which is sanctification, and the Agent, which is the Holy Ghost. We therefore employ the term holiness in practical usage as the all-inclusive, denoting the completed act of divine grace. Holiness is cleansing. It is that will of the Father, that provision of the Son, that act of the Holy Ghost, whereby the believer's heart, that is, his motive, his affections, his will - his entire nature, is cleansed from the pollution and the tendency to sin. Holiness is harmony. Complete inner harmony is not realized in regeneration. The Bible and experience agree that the unsanctified heart is a divided heart - a double heart. Outward defeat is occasioned by inward disharmony. Sanctification rids the soul of the inner foe, and aligns the forces of the moral nature against the outer enemy. Holiness is abandonment. The fathers referred to the act of human co-operation in sanctification as 'crucifixion of self,' as 'deathbed consecration.' They meant a giving-over of the all-of-one's life to the plan and authority of Deity. The man who is sanctified is thus given over to God. Every tie, every influence, every reserve is severed that will deter from complete and unrestrained participation in the fellowship and service of Deity. Holiness is power. Power is in the spiritual realm - the realm immediately affected by sanctification. It is in essence, the embodiment of all that is essential in the combined realms of human experience. Sanctification affects all that one is. Such enduement of power - the ability to discriminate, to evaluate, to influence, to single one's devotion, to command one's will, can be realized only as 'power from on high' possesses the believer. It is the fulfillment of 'the promise of the Father.' It is 'Christ in you the hope of glory.' Holiness is perfection. A perfection in love - Christian perfection. The sanctified one is not beyond the ability, nor liability to sin, but he is cleansed from the desire and nature of sin. He is not beyond the possibility of fall, but he is within the provision of divine grace, so that he is preserved from willful transgression. Sanctification is not fixedness of character, but fixedness of attitude and desire, enabling the participant to 'grow in grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.' " - DR. ORVAL J. NEASE.]

be in some sense supplementary to the other. In our discussion of General and Special Revelation (Volume I, Chapter VI), we pointed out that God discloses Himself to man, (1) through a primary revelation in nature, in the constitution of man, and in the progress of human history; (2) in addition to this general revelation manifested through His created works there is a special revelation made through the Spirit to the consciences and consciousness of men. So also in the field of ethics, God reveals Himself in two classes of law - natural and positive. (1) Natural law is that which God has written upon the heart of every man, or that which the light of reason teaches us is good or evil. Thus, the apostle says of the heathen in contradistinction to the Jews, that these, having not the law, are a law unto themselves: which shew the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the mean while accusing or else excusing one another (Rom. 2:14, 15). They are a law unto themselves, because they know in themselves what is good and what is evil, through reason which is to them the herald of divine law. Both history and experience teach us that all nations have a measure of divine revelation. This we have shown in our study of Religion and Revelation, and hence need only to point out that all nations acknowledge likewise, certain common principles of morality. Education, which has varied from age to age, cannot be the source of these uniform principles; consequently, we must find the common source of these maxims

[In the evangelical scheme doctrine and ethics are closely connected: its revelations of truth are the foundation of its new life; its morals and its doctrine are everywhere interwoven; and, finally, the ethics of the Christian religion are the crown and consummation of its entire system. - POPE, Compend. Chr Th., III, p.143.

The truth, as we see it, is here the same as in dogmatics: as there are fundamental doctrines of religion adequately sustained by rational evidence constituting a system of natural religion, so there are certain prominent duties to the common intelligence obviously obligatory which constitute a system of what may be called philosophical ethics. 'And as there are doctrines known and authenticated solely by revelation constituting a system of revealed religion, so there are duties known and enforced in the same way constituting what might be called a system of Christian ethics. Nature and revelation, properly interpreted, are never antagonistic; their utterances are words proceeding out of the mouth of God, from which man may learn all things needful for faith and practice. - RAYMOND, Systematic Theology, III, p.10.]

in natural reason, which is from the Light that lighteth all men coming into the world. (2) Positive law is that which depends upon God's free will, and, therefore, can be known only through revelation. It should be noted, however, that what in one respect is the subject of natural law, in another may exist as positive law. Thus natural law reveals the necessity of a certain period of rest each week as essential to man's greatest efficiency in service; but this is also declared by positive law in the institution of the Sabbath, which is the setting apart of one day in seven as holy unto the Lord. In close connection with this, reason makes known also the necessity of divine worship; but that the time should be a full day, and this on a set day of the week, is a revelation of positive law. Similarly the Decalogue with its "ten words," all of which is based on man's relation to God, to others and to himself, is likewise accessible to reason. However, because of man's conscience being dimmed by failure to walk in the truth, the Decalogue, as a transcript of the law written in men's hearts, was also given by positive decree. We may say, therefore, of the Decalogue, that its precepts as to their substance belong to natural law; but as to the manner of their manifestation, they are a part of positive or revealed law.

Revelation as the Source of Christian Ethics. We are now brought to the position that Christian ethics must draw its material immediately from the Christian revelation. While we may and do admit that the light of the natural conscience furnishes corroborative testimony insofar as its feebler light can penetrate, we must affirm also, that nature alone can no more furnish Christianity with its system of ethics or morals, than it can furnish it with its system of doctrines. If dogma treats of God and the truth by which salvation is accomplished, so also ethics of the standards by which the Christian life is ordered, and by means of which it is given proper expression. Thus the morals or ethics of Christianity complete the science of religion ; for it is only through a combination of dogma and ethics that the plan of salvation can be revealed in its perfection. The fact, however, that there is a greater unanimity of thought respecting the standards of morality, than there is concerning dogma, may be attributed to the greater light which the moral life receives from natural reason. Dogma, on the other hand, is purely a matter of the interpretation of the Scriptures. The highest revelation of God to man is in Jesus Christ as the Word made flesh. Hence the positive element in Christian ethics is a course of life introduced into human conditions - a life actualized in human history by Jesus Christ as the God-man, and through the Spirit communicated to the community of believers. The life of Christ, therefore, whether in word, in deed, or in the spirit underlying these words and deeds, becomes the norm of all Christian conduct. His words furnish us with the knowledge of the divine will; His actions are the confirmation of truth, and His Spirit the power by which His words are embodied in deeds. With this statement as to the positive element in Christian ethics, we turn to the Scriptures as the recorded revelation of the incarnate Word, and in them we find our standards of Christian conduct, together with the promised power of the Spirit by which .these standards are to be maintained.

The Scriptural Basis of Ethics. Here we shall refer only to those scriptures which furnish the ground for the general system of Christian ethics, reserving such passages as refer to specific Christian duties for later consideration. The first question which arises is, Are the sources of Christian ethics to be derived solely from the New Testament, or are the Old Testament writings considered as a part of the Christian revelation? This subject has been previously considered in another connection (Volume I, pp.202-205), and it is sufficient to say here that the Old Testament insofar as it is applicable to

It should be observed that the scriptures are not devoted exclusively to a development of a system of moral government, nor do they teach it on the scientific plan of one of our modern writers on the subject of Moral Philosophy. But all the principles are taught in the inspired writings, and so plainly and forcibly asserted as to make the principles and facts much more readily comprehended by an unlettered and unsophisticated mind, than the best written modern volume on the subject of moral science. - LUTHER LEE, Elements of Theology, p. 332.

Christian life is still binding upon men. Certain portions of it, however, especially the types or shadows of better things to come, had their perfect fulfillment in the great Antitype; while others of a ceremonial or political nature were abrogated as belonging only to the Mosaic economy. But as to the moral law of Moses, the substance of which was embodied in the Decalogue, this was not superseded, but referred to by our Lord as of abiding authority without any special re-enactment. Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: He said; I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 5:17-19).

The ethical teachings of the Gospels center in the idea of the kingdom, entrance to which is solely on the ground of repentance and faith. The acceptance of the call of God involves the subordination of all other loyalties. Therefore take no thought, saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal shall we be clothed? . . . But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you (Matt. 6:31, 33). The sermon on the Mount has been called the Magna Charta of the kingdom. Here the true inwardness of its nature is set forth as an attitude of spirit - of thought, feeling and will which finds its highest expression in word and deed. The description which Jesus gives is not that of certain acts, but of a certain type of character. The true spring of obedience is found in divine love. When asked concerning the

[For as much as God requires that we should love, not above, but with all our strength, it is evident that nothing exceeding our abilities is required at our hands. - LIMRORCH, Theologia, Bk. v, chapter 25.

That it is possible to love God with all the heart is folly to deny. For he that saith he cannot do a thing with all his strength, that is, that he cannot do what he can do, knows not what he saith; and yet to do this is the highest measure and sublimity of perfection, and of keeping the commandments. - BISHOP JEREMY TAYLOR.]

greatest commandment of the law, Jesus replied, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets (Matt. 22:37-40). The children of the kingdom are to be as wise as serpents, and harmless as doves (Matt. 10:16); they are to resist not evil (Matt. 5:39) and to Fear him, which after he hath killed hath power to cast into hell (Luke 12:5). According to Jesus, the supreme test of love is this, that a man lay down his life for his friends (John 15:13) and in close connection with this is the practical application, For whosoever will save his life shall lose it; but whosoever will lose his life for my sake, the same shall save it (Luke 9:24).

 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ETHICAL THEORY IN THE CHURCH

The periods which mark the development of ethical theory in the church, differ somewhat from those which are important in the history of dogmatics. For our purpose, the subject may be conveniently summed up in the following periods: (1) The Patristic Period, from the earlier fathers to the time of Constantine; (2) The Middle Ages, from the time of Constantine to the close of the Middle Ages; (3) The Renaissance and the Reformation; and (4) The Modern Period.

The Patristic Period. During the first century, the interests of the church were primarily concerned with practical conduct rather than rational reflection. Harneck says that for the first century and a half, the church ranked everything secondary to the supreme task of maintaining its morality. The dominant note of the early church was that of divine love manifesting itself in the care of the poor, hospitality to strangers, avoidance of the sensuous luxury and vices of the pagans, and devotion to the purity of life set by Christ and the apostles. Not until the latter part of the second century was there serious reflection on ethical problems. In the progress of Christianity in conflict with paganism, the more rigid view of Montanism came to occupy a place in apologetics alongside the milder tendency of previous times. Equally dangerous but in another direction, were the mistaken views of Christian liberty on the part of the Gnostics, which led to the dangerous errors of the Carpocratians and the later pantheistical sects. It thus became the task of Christianity to more exactly determine its principles and applications of morality. Some preliminary work had been done in the Epistles of Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle to Diognetus, but it remained for the later fathers to formulate the ethical principles of the church. In ethics as in dogmatics there is a difference of approach in the East and in the West. The former regarded Christian ethics as in some sense supplementary to the ancient Greek philosophy, which in itself was inadequate to a knowledge of God and immortality. Christianity, therefore, brought to completion the Greek ethical principles which were assumed to be grounded in universal reason. This is the position of Justin Martyr

[Clement of Rome in his First Epistle to the Corinthians states that the motive of Christian conduct is derived from "fear" or "reverence" of God. "Let us See how near He is," he says, "and how that nothing escapeth Him of our thoughts or our devices which we make. It is right, therefore, that we should not be deserters from His will." Ignatius insisted upon right beliefs as the basis for right moral practices. False theology, he maintained, led to wrong attitudes and bad conduct. "Faith is the beginning and love the end" of the Christian life. Among the more important of his maxims are "Let there be one prayer in common; one supplication; one mind; one hope, in love and in joy unblameable." "Shun divisions as the beginning of all evils." "Let all things be done to the honor of God." Polycarp in his "Epistle to the Philippians" appeals to the words of Jesus as sanctions. Faith, hope and love are the essentials of the Christian life. Heresy was regarded as a desire to live otherwise than according to the true faith. He warned especially against covetousness, "the love of money is the beginning of all trouble." The Didache and the Epistle of Barnabas have some similarities. Christianity is regarded as a new covenant which brings God and man into religious fellowship. The Shepherd of Hermas emphasizes the struggle necessary to maintain the Christian standards, and hence the need for reliance upon divine mercy and grace. Cheerfulness, however, is given special emphasis. "Put away sorrow from thyself"; "Clothe thyself with cheerfulness, which hath favor with God always, and is acceptable to Him, and rejoice in it" "For every cheerful man worketh good, and thinketh good and despiseth sadness; but the sad man is always continuing in sin." The Epistle to Piognetus emphasizes the spiritual principle which animates Christians and keeps them from being absorbed in the things of the world. God is the source of the Christian ideal, "loving Him thou wilt be an imitator of His goodness."]

who made the Logos doctrine the foundation of his exposition. The latter, or Western fathers, maintained that ethically, Christianity was something entirely new, and, therefore, was in no wise related to the ethics of paganism. Here Tertullian is the representative apologist. To him, Christianity was a spiritual power given to the church to preserve it from paganism, organize its children into a compact army to attack paganism, conquer it and judge it. Clement of Alexandria regarded philosophy as a propadeutic to faith, and his work is a blending of contributions from Greek thought and Judaism. A number of striking ethical ideas are developed in his Paedagogus, Stromata and Exhortations. With Cyprian, one of the Latin fathers, the church came into prominence as the center of a whole field of ethics. This grew out of the controversy with the Montanists and the Novatians, and as a consequence, the relation of the individual to the church became the most prominent ethical relation of his life.

The Middle Ages. The conversion of Constantine in the fourth century brought about marked changes in the church. Freed from persecution by the State, prestige and power were soon achieved. An ecclesiasticism developed, which in turn began the persecution of pagans and heretics. Worldliness increased, and many Christians seeking for a way of sacrifice withdrew to monastic life. This gave rise to a different and distinct type of ethics.

Ambrose (340-397) in his work entitled De Officiis Ministrorum, gave to the church what is generally regarded as the first manual of Christian ethics. It was modelled after a Stoic work by Cicero, and the idea of natural law which it sets forth had a definite influence upon later scholastic ethics. This law of nature is the

[Dr. I. A. Dorner points out that the Montanists accepted the sudden outbursts of individual enthusiasm as the true medium through which the Holy Spirit communicates with the congregation, and consequently demanded absolute obedience to the dictates of this ecstatic prophecy as a condition of communion between the Spirit and the individual. The Novatians on the other hand, found the true vehicle of spiritual communion in the church itself considered as a totality, as an organization of the universal priesthood under presbyterial forms, and, therefore, were rigorous with respect to admission of members.]

law of things as God created them, and from it there is something to be learned concerning the requirements of morality. Higher than this, there is within man a knowledge of the moral through reason and conscience; but highest of all is the will of God as expressed in the Scriptures, culminating in the teaching and example of Christ. The beginnings of asceticism, however, are very noticeable in that Ambrose recognized two levels of morality - one obligatory upon all, the other as including works done beyond the requirements in order to a higher degree of perfection. He also definitely adopted the four cardinal Greek virtues - Prudence, Justice, Courage and Temperance. Prudence, however, was with him, not so much reason or wisdom, as it was the personal knowledge of God manifesting itself in human conduct. Justice must be exercised, "first towards God, secondly towards our country, thirdly towards our parents, and lastly towards all." Courage he interpreted as fortitude in the trials of ordinary life, and temperance as self-respect, modesty in all forms, and a due appreciation of others. The work of Ambrose was transitional, and led directly to Augustine's more distinctly Christian system of ethics.

Augustine (354-430) systematized the ethics of the Western church, and the principles which he advanced, were regarded as authoritative during the greater part of the Middle Ages. Here the central and dominating idea of the Christian life is union with God, an experience of perfect peace and blessedness which can be achieved only in the life to come. Hence in his City of God, he distinguishes between the earthly city which is temporal, and the city of God which is eternal. With Augustine, the moral life has its basis in God, and is in accord with the world He has created. He, therefore, opposes the theory that morality is based on social custom, a position which is commonly defined as "custom operating in consciousness." He also considered the Christian view of ethics as opposed to the Stoic apathy as regards the emotional life. He placed the greater emphasis, however, upon the will. Man must surrender his will in love. Two tendencies emphasized by Augustine led to ill effect in later history. (1) He conformed to the distinction that had become current, as to what was commanded for all, and what was counseled as going farther, and thus making for perfection. This led to an emphasis upon the works of supererogation, and the accumulation of merit, which in turn contributed to ascetic practices. (2) His idea of self-surrender, also, was no small incentive to the ecclesiastical suppression of individual liberty. He held that the church as a continuous organization had the truth and the authority to teach it. This required individual submission. Since it was of divine appointment that men should come into the church, they should do so willingly, but if not they were to be compelled to do so. It was, therefore, the sacred duty of the church to see that men came into the church, and if it lacked the power of compulsion, it was the sacred duty of the state to come to its rescue, and compel them to come, that the church might be filled. From these two tendencies, both ecclesiasticism and monasticism were given added impulse during the Middle Ages.

Monasticism became the characteristic feature of mediaeval Christianity, and provided its conception of Christian ethics. Asceticism had become established among Christians even in the time of Augustine, and much was made of those elements in the Gospels and Pauline writings which seemed to approve ascetic practices. Monasticism as a revolt against the growing worldliness in the state church, arose independently and frequently in opposition to the ecclesiastical organization. For this reason, even when allied with the church in later times, it retained much of its independence. The monastic ideal, however, soon came to be predominant, so that the vowed monks became "the religious" or regular clergy, while the nonmonastic priests became "the seculars." Basil (c. 329-379) was probably the first to inaugurate a definite movement toward community life among the ascetics. Benedict (480-543) introduced a new rule. Previous to this the monks had dwelt largely upon self-conquest, Benedict spoke of self-surrender. His monasteries were organized along communal lines with democratic rule. Perhaps no rule was less ascetic than that of Benedict. Bernard of Clairvaux (1094-1174) by his great saintliness and personal power was able to effect great reforms along spiritual lines. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) and Dominic (11701221) brought about great changes in the conception of the ascetic life and its practices. They developed a human interest and love for mankind that drew them away from the cloister and sent them forth on an unhampered ministry of love. The ethical ideal of St. Francis was the imitation of Christ, specifically in spirit, but also largely in the details of conduct. The vows of poverty, chastity and obedience had as their purpose the full devotement of the individual to the welfare of others. Special emphasis was placed upon poverty. While the Franciscans were primarily evangelistic, the Dominicans established their houses near the universities and gave their attention largely to education. By this means they soon came to set the doctrinal standards of the church, and this through a period of several centuries. Among the later mystics, asceticism was of a higher type. John Scotus Erigena introduced Greek mysticism as found in Macarius the Egyptian, Dionysius and Maximus Confessor, and this became the starting point of mysticism in the Western church. The development took place in two forms - the, Romanic, as in Hugo and Richard of St. Victor, Bernard of Clairvaux, Bonaventura, Gerson and Molinus; and the Germanic, as in Henry Suso, Ruysbroek, John Tauler and Meister Eckhart. So far as mysticism developed an ethics, however, it retained the false principle of asceticism as a contradiction between matter and spirit, God and the world. The chief reason assigned in the failure of the mystics to develop a true ethics is the lack of a proper conception of personality. That the created soul is capable of receiving the divine, and by this means achieving a perfect union between the finite and the infinite, is an idea which first came into prominence with Luther and his doctrine of justification by faith.

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274) treated ethics as an integral part of a general philosophical and theological system. In him, ethics reached its authoritative statement. The ultimate end for which man acts, or at least should act, he called "beatitude" or "true blessedness," which when attained is all-sufficient. Nothing can satisfy except the Infinite, or the eternal goodness of God himself. Thus he lays a firm foundation for ethical theory in Christian theism. The virtue, or proper excellence of a thing consists in its being well-disposed according to its kind. Man being constituted a rational soul, ethics must be according to reason. Virtues in man are therefore the habits of the soul in accordance with which it performs good acts. The virtues are classified as follows: (1) Moral - the four cardinal Greek virtues, Prudence, Justice, Temperance and Fortitude. (2) Intellectual - understanding, knowledge and wisdom; and (3) Theological - faith, hope and love. The first two may be known by reason, but the last only by revelation. The natural virtues lead to the development of character; the theological to spiritual happiness here and life in the world to come. Thomas treated the Greek cardinal virtues, however, after a Christian method. The passions in themselves he regarded as indifferent and, therefore, to be brought under the control of the will. Of the theological virtues, love or charity was the highest and included the others in itself. The influence of Augustine, however, is clearly seen, in that Thomas accepted the twofold attitude toward morality; and while he regarded the earthly and the heavenly as compatible, those who turned their attention to the heavenly received greater praise.

The Renaissance and the Reformation. As the dominant note of the Middle Ages was the subordination of the earthly life to that of the life to come, so it was followed by the reactionary development commonly known as Humanism. Here the emphasis was placed upon the Individual life and the present world. But humanism produced no profound or widespread ethical theory. It was in fact, irreligious. The traditional views of sin and the atonement meant little or nothing, and no place was found for the contemplative type of experience. Humanism was in some true sense a return to the pagan ideals of Greece and Rome, but it did have the effect of broadening the horizons of men. The forerunners of the Reformation - Wycliffe, (c. 1324 or earlier-1384) and Huss (1369 or 1373-1415) had pointed out the moral infirmities of the times, sought to awaken interest in classical studies, and also introduced a new feature into ethical teaching - that of exalting morality as a guide into the wisdom of Christianity for the government of affairs in practical life. This was developed by Petrarch (d. 1374), Marsilius, Ficinus (d. 1499), Louis Vives (d. 1540) and Erasmus (d. 1536). Savonarola (1452-1498) especially opposed the moral corruption and worldliness of both the secular leaders of the Renaissance and the higher ecclesiastical officials. He made an effort to establish the ethical conception of the Mediaeval church, in which the thought of other worldliness should dominate both thought and conduct. "We live in this world, 0 my brothers," he said, "only to learn how to die."

The Protestant Reformation was, in some sense, a reaction from both Mediaevalism and the Renaissance. With the belief in other - worldliness inherited from Mediaevalism, and the insistence upon the present world as the contribution of the Renaissance, the ethical problem

[When the Reformation took its final stand upon Scripture, it not only escaped the great errors of the Middle Ages, but it also succeeded in establishing the true principles of Christian ethics. By the new doctrines of faith, and justification by faith, the fundamental ethical ideas of duty, virtue, and highest good, were, so to speak, melted down and recast. A new ethics appeared, bearing the characteristic marks of the double development of the Protestant or evangelical principle - the Lutheran Church with its talent for plastic representation, art, hymnology, science; and the Reformed Church, with its talent for practical action, discipline, missions, statesmanship. Though neither Luther nor Calvin has written on ethics, in the proper sense of the word, both have occasionally treated of various ethical subjects - especially in the form of expositions of the Decalogue in the Catechism. The Catechism is, indeed, the primitive form of evangelical ethics. Just as evangelical dogmatics arose from the "regula fidei" and the apostolical symbolum, so evangelical ethics grew out of the Deca1ogue. - I. A. DORNER, art. "Ethics," SCHAFF-HERZOG, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.]

of the Reformation period came to be, How to conceive of Christian ethics or morality, as including both the earthly and the transcendent. It insisted that life was not to be lived in a monastery but in active participation in human affairs. It opposed, however, the tendency of Humanism to make pleasure and intellectual culture the chief affairs of this life. Dr. Denny states the aim of the Reformation thus, "to expel things from religion and exhibit all its realities as persons and the relation of persons." Luther developed a form of ethical dualism in that he made morality the spontaneous manifestation of the inner life of the Spirit; and given this liberty of sonship, the Christian subjects himself to righteous service in a voluntary manner. "When we have taught faith in Christ," he says, "then do we teach also good works." Calvin was more systematic in his thinking, and grounded ethics in the nature of man as created by God. In his Institutes he includes ethics under regeneration, and expounds it in his study of the Christian Man, the Bearing of the Cross and similar subjects. He viewed the Decalogue as a statement of the fundamentals of the moral law engraved on the minds of men. To conform to the Decalogue is to obey God, and this is morality. Any tolerance of sin was a share in it. Hence in the Reformed churches, it became common practice to attach great value to the legal elements in the Old Testament, and to combine these into an ethical system in connection with the Decalogue.

Other writings of this period which contributed to Christian ethics were those of John Bunyan (16281688) who made redeeming grace the dominant characteristics of all his writings, but developed no distinct ethical theory; George Fox (1624-1690), who was singularly clear in his judgment on great moral issues; Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) in his Holy Living regards the essential thing in morality as purity of intention; and William Law (1686-1761) gives an exposition of the Christian life according to ethical principles in his Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life. This work has been compared to Thomas á Kempis' Imitation of Christ, in that underlying all is the principle of submission and the spirit of obedience which rules out all that is unholy. "All the wants which disturb human life, which makes us uneasy to ourselves, quarrelsome with others, and unthankful to God, which carry us from project to project, from place to place, in a poor pursuit of we know not what, are wants which neither God, nor nature, nor reason, hath subjected us to, but are solely infused into us by pride, envy, ambition and covetousness." (WILLIAM LAW, Serious Call). To these may be added the name of Joseph Butler (1692-1752) whose theory is similar to that of Thomas Aquinas, but was developed independently. Bishop Butler recognized two sources of ethical knowledge - nature and reason on the one hand and revelation on the other. To him, God is the source of the moral law in conscience, in the constitution of nature and in the Scriptures; and all Christian morality is included in the love of God, of others and of self. Thus Christian ethics is at once empirical and transcendent, anthropological and theological.

The first theologian in the Reformed Church to treat Christian ethics as distinct from Dogmatics, was Danaeus (d. 1536). His work entitled Christian Ethics was published in 1577. In the Lutheran Church, Calixtus followed the same method in his Epitome of Moral Theology (1634-1662). The Roman Catholic theologians sharply criticized this separation between Dogmatics and Ethics as tending toward humanism and minifying revelation. The Cartesian philosophy awakened a new interest in the study of ethics, especially in the Reformed Church; and the two movements of Pietism and Methodism likewise exerted a stimulating and purifying effect. Arminianism, especially, gave great promise to the ethical side of Christianity. As marking the close of the older order and the transition to a new period, we may mention Buddaeus, Institutes of Moral Theology (1711-1724), and Mosheim, Ethics of the Holy Scriptures (9 vols. 1735-1753). With Kant and his doctrine of the categorical imperative, a new period in the study of ethics began - one which freed the subject from many of the older restrictions, but which unhappily robbed it of its profound religious motive. For a time no principle of Christian ethics was adopted. Schwartz and Flatt adhered definitely to the Scriptures without attempting any principle of scientific classification. DeWette was probably the first in modern times to point out the necessity for such a principle, and from this time, Protestant works on ethics are characterized by an attempt to attain a more scientific character. It is to Schleiermacher, however, that we must turn as the founder of modern theological ethics. The subjectivism of Kant having reached its consequences in Fichte, philosophy again turned to objectivism. Schelling advanced the theory of the identity of the subject and object, and on this basis, Schleiermacher constructed his ethics. He returned to the old idea of the kingdom of heaven, which had entirely disappeared from the philosophy of Kant and Wolff. However, he did not with Buddaeus regard the kingdom as an indefinite realm beyond the grave; nor did he accept the position of the Roman Catholics in limiting it to the church on earth. Instead, he found the kingdom in every sphere of life, by the virtuous action of the individual. Following Schleiermacher, perhaps the most important work is Rothe's Theological Ethics. This has been praised as presenting an insight "into the innermost marrow of ethical speculation," and as demonstrating "that Christianity is the realization of the highest thought of God" (Bunsen). On the other hand, it is deserving of just criticism, in that it makes the state rather than the church, the highest good, and maintains that it should be the object of the church to resolve itself into the state. In this he follows Hegel who made the state the supreme good, in direct opposition to the ethics of both the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Church.

Among the more modern works on Christian ethics are the following: Martensen, Christian Ethics (3 vols. 1871); Luthardt, History of Christian Ethics (1889); Smyth, Christian Ethics (3rd Ed. 1894); Strong, Christian Ethics (1896); Robbins, The Ethics of the Christian Life (1904); I. A. Dorner, System of Christian Ethics (1906); Stalker, The Ethics of Jesus (1909); Hall, History of Ethics Within Organized Christianity (1910); King, The Ethics of Jesus (1910); Alexander, Christianity and Ethics (1914); Scott, New Testament Ethics (1930); Niebuhr, An Interpretation of Christian Ethics (1935); and Widgery, Christian Ethics in History and Modern Life (1940).

 

The Principles of Christian Ethics

We have shown the relation of Ethics to Dogmatics; have indicated the source of Christian Ethics as centering in Divine Revelation; traced briefly the development of ethical theory in the church; and must now consider the principles underlying Christian ethics and their application in daily life. In our examination of Christian Perfection as the norm of New Testament experience, we found that it was a purification of the heart from sin in order to a full devotement of the whole being to Jesus Christ. Grace must first express itself in Christian experience; and from the communication of this new life and love, new standards of daily living will be formed. Doctrine may not always issue in experience; but experience if it is to be maintained must always issue in Christian living. Every doctrine, therefore, not only has its experiential phase, but also its ethical expression. God is a Person, and man is a person, hence all their relationships must be ethical. The dominant note of Christian Perfection being that of full devotion to God, this devotement becomes a fundamental principle in Christian ethics. As such, it is exercised toward Christ in His divine-human nature as the mediatorial Person; and this both as Creator and Redeemer. As Creator, His law is written in the nature and constitution of man, and is commonly known as the law of conscience. As Redeemer, His whole life and history furnish a satisfaction to the Divine Will. There can be, therefore, no lack of harmony between the new law of Christ, and the old law of a fully redeemed and enlightened conscience. But the mediatorial cannot be properly understood unless it be seen that the Supreme Law-giver, and the perfect Example of His own presence are conjoined in the Deity and manhood of the Goodman. In order that Christ might give His people a new commandment, and a perfect law of liberty through which that commandment could be fulfilled, He himself received a new commandment and learned obedience by the things which He suffered. And having learned obedience, He presented himself as at once the perfect law-giver, and the perfect Example of His own precepts. Here we find the unsearchable unity of His two natures in one personal Agent investing the subject of Christian ethics, as it does also, that of Christian dogmatics. His moral obligation, however, could not be shared, for the mystery of His suffering was twofold for sin in us, and through temptation to impossible sin in Himself. For this reason St. Paul says that he died unto sin once: but in that he liveth, he liveth unto God (Rom. 6:10). In this death to sin, He secured for us forever, (1) the law of liberty by which we are delivered from the principle of sin; and (2) the law of love as a motive to righteousness. Here, then, is the fulfillment of The oath which he swore to our father Abraham, that he would grant unto us, that we being delivered out of the hand of our enemies might serve him without fear, in holiness and righteousness before him, all the days of our life (Luke 1:73-75).

The Law of Liberty. The new freedom provided by the death of Christ unto sin is called by St. James the perfect law of liberty (James 1:25); and again, the royal law, which according to the Scriptures is, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself (James 2:8). St. Paul speaks of it as the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus, which makes us free from the law of sin and death (Rom. 8:2). The external law cease to be the law of sin and death, for the consciousness of sins is removed in justification; and the inner law of life by the Spirit furnishes the motive and the strength of obedience.

 

[ON THE TRUE IDEA OF SPIRITUAL LIBERTY

On the above subject, Dr. Thomas C. Upham gives us the following excellent discussion in his work entitled, "The Principles of the Interior Life." We present it in a greatly abbreviated form. He says, "It has probably come within the observation of many persons, that there is a form or modification of religious experience, which is denominated 'Liberty.' Hence, in common religious parlance, it is not unfrequently the case that we hear of persons being 'in the liberty,' or in the 'true liberty.' These expressions undoubtedly indicate an important religious truth, which has not altogether escaped the notice of writers on the religious life. The account as given by Francis de Sales of 'the liberty of spirit' is, that 'it consists in keeping the heart totally disengaged from every created thing, in order that it may follow the known will of God.' To this statement of De Sales, considered as a general and somewhat indefinite statement, we do not find it necessary to object. Certain it is that he who is in the 'true liberty' is 'disengaged,' and has escaped from the enslaving influence of the world. God has become to him an inward, operative principle, without whom he feels he can do nothing, and in connection with whose blessed assistance he has an inward consciousness that the world and its lusts have lost their inthralling power. Liberty - considered in this general sense of the term - is to be regarded as expressive of one of the highest and most excellent forms of Christian experience. And we may add, further, that none truly enjoy it in this high sense but those who are in a state of mind, which may with propriety be denominated a holy or sanctified state, none but those whom God has made 'free indeed.' We proceed now to mention some of the marks by which the condition or state of the spiritual liberty is characterized. Nor does there seem to be much difficulty in doing this, because liberty is the opposite of inthrallment; and because it is easy, as a general thing, to understand and to specify the things by which we are most apt to be inthralled.

"(1) The person who is in the enjoyment of true spiritual liberty is no longer inthralled to the lower or appetitive part of his nature. Whether he eats or drinks, or whatever other appetite may claim its appropriate exercise, he can say in truth that he does all to the glory of God.

"(2) The person who is in the enjoyment of true spiritual liberty is no longer inthralled by certain desires of a higher character than the appetite - such as the desire of society, the desire of knowledge, the desire of the world's esteem, and the like. These principles, which, in order to distinguish them from the appetites, may conveniently be designated as the propensities, or propensive principles, operate in the man of true inward liberty as they were designed to operate, but never with the power to enslave.

"(3) A man who is in the enjoyment of true religious liberty will not be inthralled by inordinate domestic or patriotic affections, however ennobling they may be thought to be - such as the love of parents and children, the love of friends and country. It is true that spiritual liberty does not exclude the exercise of these affection - which are, in many respects, generous and elevated - any more than it condemns and excludes the existence of the lower appetites and propensities.

  "(4) When we are wrongly under the influence of disinclinations and aversions, we cannot be said to be in internal liberty. Sometimes, when God very obviously calls us to the discharge of duty, we are internally conscious of a great degree of backwardness. We do it, it is true; but we feel that we do not like to do it. There are certain duties which we owe to the poor and degraded, to the openly profane and impure, which are oftentimes repugnant to persons of certain refined mental habits; but if we find that these refined repugnances, which come in the way of duty, have great power over us, we are not in the true liberty. We have not that strength in God, which enables us to act vigorously and freely.

"(5) The person is not in the enjoyment of true liberty of spirit, who is wanting in the disposition of accommodation to others in the things which are not of especial importance. And this is the case when we needlessly insist upon having everything done in our own time and manner; when we are troubled about little things, which are in themselves indifferent, and think, perhaps, more of the position of a chair than the salvation of a soul; when we find a difficulty in making allowance for constitutional differences, in others, which it may not be easy or important for them to correct; when we find ourselves disgusted because another does not express himself in entire accordance with our principles of taste; or when we are displeased and dissatisfied with his religious, or other performances, although we know he does the best he can. We may properly add here, that the fault-finder - especially one who is in the confirmed habit of fault-finding - is not a man of a free spirit. Accordingly, those who are often complaining of their minister, of the brethren of the church, of the time and manner of the ordinances, and of many other persons and things, will find, on a careful examination, that they are too full of self, too strongly moved by their personal views and interests, to know the true and full import of that ennobling liberty which the Saviour gives to His truly sanctified ones.

"(6) The person who is disturbed and impatient when events fall out differently from what he expected and anticipated is not in the enjoyment of true spiritual freedom. In accordance with the great idea of God's perfect sovereignty, the man of a religiously free spirit regards all events which take place - sin only excepted - as an expression, under the existing circumstances, of the will of God. And such is his unity with the divine will, that there is an immediate acquiescence in the event, whatever may be its nature, and however afflicting in its personal bearings. His mind has acquired, as it were, a divine flexibility, in virtue of which it accommodates itself, with surprising ease and readiness, to all the developments of Providence, whether prosperous or adverse.

"(7) Those who are in the enjoyment of true liberty are patient under interior temptations, and all inward trials of mind. They can bless the hand that smites them internally as well as externally. Knowing that all good exercises are from the Holy Spirit, they have no disposition to prescribe to God what the particular nature of those exercises shall be. If God sees fit to try, and to strengthen, their spirit of submission and patience by bringing them into a state of great heaviness and sorrow, either by subjecting to severe temptations from the adversary of souls, or by laying upon them the burden of deep grief for an impenitent world, or in any other way, they feel it to be all right and well. They ask for their daily bread spiritually, as well as temporarily; and they cheerfully receive what God sees fit to send them.

"(8) The person who enjoys true liberty of spirit is the most deliberate and cautious in doing what he is most desirous to do. This arises from the fact that he is very much afraid of being out of the line of God's will and order. He distrusts, and examines closely, all strong desires and strong feelings generally, especially if they agitate his mind and render it somewhat uncontrollable; not merely or chiefly because the feelings are strong; that is not the reason; but because there is reason to fear, from the very fact of their strength and agitating tendency, that some of nature's fire, which true sanctification quenches and destroys, has mingled in with the holy and peaceable flame of divine love.

"(9) He who is in true liberty of spirit is not easily excited by opposition. The power of grace gives him inward strength; and it is the nature of true strength to deliberate. Accordingly, when his views are controverted, he is not hasty to reply. He is not indifferent; but he replies calmly and thoughtfully. He has confidence in the truth, because he has confidence in God.

(10) The person of a truly liberated spirit, although he is ever ready to do his duty, waits patiently till the proper time of action. He has no choice of time but that which is indicated by the providence of God. The Saviour himself could not act until his 'hour was come.'.... An inthralled mind, although it is religiously disposed in part, will frequently adopt a precipitate and undeliberate course of action, which is inconsistent with a humble love of the divine order. Such a person thinks that freedom consists in having things his own way, whereas true freedom consists in having things in the right way; and the right way is God's way.

(11) The possessor of true religious liberty, when he has submissively and conscientiously done his duty, is not troubled by any undue anxiety in relation to the result. It may be laid down as a maxim, that he who asserts that he has left all things in the hands of God and at the same time exhibits trouble and agitation of spirit in relation to the results of those very things (with the exception of those agitated movements which are purely instinctive), gives abundant evidence, in the fact of this agitation of spirit, that he has not really made the entire surrender which he professes to have made. The alleged facts are contradictory of each other, and both cannot exist at the same time.

"(12) Finally. In view of what has be3n said, and as a sort of summary of the whole, we may remark that true liberty of spirit is found in those, and in those only, who, in the language of De sales, 'keep the heart totally disengaged from every created thing, in order that they may follow the known will of God.' In other words, it is found in those who can say with the Apostle Paul, that they are 'dead, and their life is hid with Christ in God. The ruling motive in the breast of the man of a religiously free spirit is, that he may, in all cases and on all occasions, do the will of God. In that will his 'life is hid.' The supremacy of the divine will - in other words, the reign of God in the heart - necessarily has a direct and powerful operation upon the appetites, propensities, and affections; keeping them, each and all, in their proper place. Another thing, which can be said affirmatively and positively is, that those who are spiritually free are led by the spirit of God. A man who is really guided by his appetites, his propensities, or even by his affections, his love of country, or anything else than the Spirit of God, cannot be said to be led by that divine spirit. The Spirit of God, ruling in the heart will not bear the presence of any rival, any competitor, that is to say, in all cases of voluntary action, he does nothing under the impulse and guidance of natural pleasure or natural choice alone. His liberty consists in being free from self; in being liberated from the dominion of the world; in lying quietly and submissively in the hands of God; in leaving himself, like clay in the hands of the potter, to be molded and fashioned by the divine will ..... Spiritual liberty implies, with the fact of entire submission to God, the great and precious reality of interior emancipation. He who is spiritually free is free in God. And he may, perhaps, be said to be free in the same sense in which God is, who is free to do everything right, and nothing wrong.

"This is freedom indeed. This is the liberty with which Christ makes free. This is emancipation which inspires the songs of angels - a freedom which earth cannot purchase, and which hell cannot shackle." (pp. 56-62).]

This is the foundational fact of the New Covenant, I will put my laws into their mind, and write them in their hearts (Heb. 8:10). While in Christianity, this law is supernatural, it is in some true sense, the law of reason restored, and more than restored. The Divine Spirit in the hearts of regenerate men seeks to work out perfect obedience to the law of righteousness as taking place by the bestowment of a new life in harmony with the external law, it will be seen that the believer unfolds in his spiritual life according to his own nature, and not by means of outward compulsion. This inner law, therefore, amounts to self-government restored. It is the rule of God's Spirit in a renewed self, according to the original idea of the Creator for man. Men are thus in their new natures under the authority of the Holy Spirit, and having their souls in subjection, they become a law unto themselves, not without law to God, but under the law of Christ (I Cor. 9:21). Thus the law is not made void, but established through faith (Rom. 3:31). We are indeed delivered from the law of sin and death, but not from the law of holiness and life. While the law is written upon the heart, it is still a law, and, therefore, necessitates the dignity of an external standard also, in conformity with the inner law of life. The fundamental fact then, in Christian ethics, is the law of life, by which man is delivered from outward compulsion, and given the freedom to develop according to the new law of his nature. Thus he keeps the law, by the unfolding of his inner nature which is now in harmony with that law. The keynote of this new nature is love, and thus love is the fulfilling of the law.

The Law of Love. We have seen that holiness and love are closely related in the nature of God. Holiness is the divine nature interpreted from the standpoint of self-affirmation, while Love is that same nature viewed as self-communication. Both are, therefore, equally of the essence of God. The holiness of God requires that He always act out of pure love; while love seeks always to impart Himself and that self is holy. (Cf. Christian Theology, I, pp. 382ff.) We have seen, also, that the Wesleyan conception of Christian Perfection is a purification of the heart from all that is contrary to pure love. Considered from the standpoint of the inner Law of Liberty, Christian Perfection is deliverance from sin; considered from the standpoint of the royal law, Love is both the principle and the power of perfect consecration to God. Charity or divine love, which has its source in the nature of God, and which is imparted to the individual soul by the Holy Spirit through Christ, becomes, therefore, in its full ethical meaning, the substance of all obligation - whether to God or man. To the individual self, it is the fulfillment of a perfect character, for love is the pleroma (plhrwma) of religion as well as law. St. Peter makes it the crown of all graces introduced into the life and sustained by faith (II Peter 1:5-7). Love thus becomes the sum of all interior goodness, and the bond of perfectness which unites and hallows all the energies of the soul. St. Paul makes love the end of the commandment in much the same sense that Christ is the end of the law for righteousness. (I Tim. 1:5). Here charity or holy love is represented not only as the crowning grace of Christian character, but the point of transition in the relation of the individual to the social structure. It is, therefore, the anakafalaiwsiV or summing up of the law in perfect love which never fails (I Cor. 13:8). It is a love, says Dr. Pope, "which neglects no injunction, forgets no prohibition, discharges every duty. It is perfect in passive as well as active obedience. It 'never faileth; it insures every grace adapted to time or worthy of eternity. Therefore it is that the term perfect is reserved for this grace. Patience must have her perfect work; but love alone is itself perfect, while it gives perfection to him who has it." (POPE, Compend. Chr. Th., III, p.177).

Conscience as the Regulative Factor in Christian Experience and Conduct. We have discussed the law of liberty as an inward deliverance from the being and power of sin, and the law of love as the propulsive power of righteousness; it remains now for us to discuss conscience as the regulative factor in Christian experience and conduct. It is not our purpose, however, to discuss the place of conscience in philosophical ethics, but to use it in the Pauline sense as an integral part of vital religious experience. He says, Now the end of the commandment is charity out of a pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith unfeigned (I Tim. 1:5). Here St. Paul analyzes Christian experience as follows: A stream of charity or divine love, flowing from a pure heart, regulated by a good conscience, and kept full and fresh and flowing, by an unfeigned faith. This faith refers, of course, to the constancy of trust in Christ, who by His Spirit sheds abroad the love of God in the hearts of the purified.

1. Conscience in ordinary usage "covers everything in man's nature that has to do with the decision and direction of moral conduct" (Standard Dictionary). While This may be a true description of conscience in popular speech, it is too vague for theological use. In our attempt to be more specific, however, we must constantly bear in mind the following facts: (1) Man is a moral being by virtue of being a person; for moral nature is an essential element in personality. (2) The spirit as the controlling factor in man's complex being, is a unit, and, consequently, is not divisible into parts. Being thus indivisible it always acts as a unity, and intellect, sensibility

[As science means knowledge, so conscience etymologically means self-knowledge. In the moral being, conscience is the queen of every inward spring of action, will is her subject; and as all legislative function and delegated judicial authority emanates from the sovereign, so conscience is, objectively, the unwritten law of the heart, as founded on those eternal principles of right and equity and truth that are as rays from the throne of God; and, subjectively, it passes judgment upon the thoughts of the heart and the actions of the body. If conscience be obeyed, it approves, and then it is pure; but if it be dishonored and its voice disregarded, such disloyalty can only lay up materials for remorse. This authoritative principle of the mind and soul of man is referable only to the original gift of moral and spiritual life as the soul of man. "In the likeness of God made he him"; and as mental consciousness is our evidence of the existence of thoughts, desires, feelings, and other states of the mind, so conscience is a standing testimony of the divine genesis of the soul, as a direct afflatus from God. This fundamental element of man's moral being is proof to him of his religious relation to his Maker; it declares the mysterious intercommunication that subsists between the spirit of God and the spirit of man; and it indicates the natural revelation of God's will made to man through reason. Conscience is the representative of this inner revelation, which, proceeding forth from the creative spirit of God, infuses itself into the spirit of man, and as a plastic energy forms and molds him, by conveying to him the cognizance of God's will and of man's duties in His sight. Thus conscience is our moral sense continually held in check by the Spirit of God; it is the very soul of our loyalty to Him; it is the "religion" of a true communion. WHEWELL, Elements of Morality, sect. 263.]

and will are present in every activity. But while the soul always moves as a unit, one form of activity may so predominate at a given time, as to be discriminated and defined. For this reason, we define the intellect as the soul thinking; the sensibility, as the soul feeling; and the will as the soul choosing or exercising volition. So, also, if we restrict our definition of conscience to certain modes of self-activity, we shall not be understood as implying that the whole self is not active, but only that the peculiar functions of the moral nature are predominant. We may, therefore, define conscience as "the self passing judgment upon its conformity, or nonconformity, in character and conduct to moral law, that is, as right and wrong, with the accompanying feeling or impulse to obey the judgment of righteousness." (ROBBINS, The Ethics of the Christian Life, p. 79.) In this view of conscience, the functions of discovery or annunciation of moral law are not attributed to it. It is rather as Kant represents, to be regarded as a judge presiding over a court (Cf. Christian Theology, I, p. 307) , who decides that this desire, this affection, this purpose, or this deed is in accordance with moral law, and therefore right. Upon this decision, a feeling corresponding to the judgment follows, either impelling to action in accordance with the decision, or dissuading from any action which may not be in harmony with it.

2. Conscience derives its authority from the law whose requirements it enforces. As it is the majesty of the law which gives validity to the decisions of the judge in civil courts, so it is the law of God which gives validity to the decisions of conscience. Its province, therefore, is not legislative but judicial. Its decisions are always those of a just and incorruptible judge according to the laws he is set to apply. Since then, the authority of conscience is derived from the authority of the law according to which its decisions are made; and since this law is found primarily in the nature and constitution of man, it follows that the authority of conscience is not external but internal. Its voice does not come from without, but rises from the depths of his innermost being. It is the whole of his being interpreting man to himself. The law by which it judges is the inner moral law of man's nature, and any external law derives its obligatory force from an appeal to this essential law of man's moral being.

3. From the view of conscience just stated, it follows that its decisions before the law will always be infallible, that is, they will always be in accord with the law of reason. This would be true if men were in their normal state. But another factor enters here. Man is not in his normal State. The law of his being is obscured and perverted as a consequence of original sin. Hence although conscience always makes its decisions according to the law, the latter being obscured or perverted, the decisions will in these instances be erroneous. For this reason, God has given to man an external law as a transcript of his own true inner life, and this law is found in the Word of God.

4. While conscience in the absolute sense is the utterance of God's voice in the soul, and is thus beyond the power of education or development (Cf. Volume I, p. 129); the term is also used in a relative sense as involving our own moral consciousness under the eye of God. In this sense, it is the positive assimilation within

[W. Fleming in his "Manual of Moral Philosophy" mentions the defects of conscience as follows: "Conscience may be defective in respect to its law or rule, or in respect to its own certainty or clearness.

"First, in respect to its rule, conscience may be true, that is, it may be plainly and clearly in accordance with the will of God, or the ultimate and absolute rule of rectitude. It may be erroneous, that is, its decisions, instead of being in accordance with right reason and the revealed will of God, may be not in conformity with the one or the other. And this error may be vincible or invincible, according as it might and ought to have been removed, or as it could have been removed, by the diligent use of means to enlighten and correct the conscience. Conscience as erroneous has been denominated lax, when on slight grounds it judges an action not to be vicious which is truly - vicious, or slightly vicious when it is greatly so; scrupulous, when on slight grounds it judges an action to be vicious when it is not truly vicious, or greatly vicious when it is not so; perplexed, when it judges that there will be sin, whether the action is done or not done.

"Secondly, in respect to its certainty, conscience is said to be certain or clear, when there is no fear of error as to our judgment of an action as right or wrong; probable when in reference to two actions, or courses of action, it determines that the probability is that the one is right rather than the other; doubtful, when it cannot clearly determine whether an action is or is not in accordance with the law of rectitude."]

the soul, of those principles of truth and goodness necessary to bring man's will into conformity with the will of God. Two things are involved, (1) the inner impulse, and (2) the light of truth. The former is conscience proper which says "Find the right and do it"; the latter or moral judgment is strictly speaking no part of conscience, but the standard by which conscience operates. Since this moral judgment is true only insofar as it is enlightened by the Word of God, we are led to the conviction that in the Christian life, the Scriptures are the only authoritative rule of faith and practice. Further still, it will be seen that the conscience in this relative sense as involving the whole moral process, is subject to education and development, as conscience in the subjective sense is not. Hence the Scriptures refer to this relative aspect when they speak of a good or pure conscience; or of an evil and defiled conscience.

5. We are now prepared to understand the meaning of St. Paul when he speaks of a good conscience as 

[Conduct is based upon two things, namely, knowledge and conscience. Some teachers of psychology would prefer to say that conduct is based upon conscience alone, and then attribute to conscience two faculties. First, impulse, which is accepting or rejecting right or wrong when it appears; second, discrimination, which is the faculty of conscience that tells right from wrong. In this short discussion we prefer to hold that conduct is based upon two things, knowledge or light, and conscience, and then confine conscience to one function, namely, impulse, accepting or rejecting when right or wrong appear. In any case, we will all admit that some people have more knowledge or light than others have, and that some consciences, with proper training and education, have greater power of discrimination than others. These facts must be taken into consideration in the study of ethics. R. T. WILLIAMS, Sanctification, The Experience and Ethics, pp.51, 52.

Dr. Olin A. Curtis regards conscience as having two coworkers the judgment, by which the man decides whether a given matter is right or wrong; and the will, by which the man makes a choice among the possible courses of action. In popular speech the judgment is considered a part of conscience; but, strictly speaking, there is no moral quality in the judgment; it is moral only in the loose sense that it is now dealing with moral matters. He points out, also, that in conscience proper, there are three features - moral distinction, moral obligation, and moral settlement. By moral distinction is meant the intuitive knowledge that there is a right and a wrong. Moral obligation follows immediately, for as soon as this distinction is made, Right says "You ought." When this sense of obligation is analyzed it will be found to contain three momenta, the obligation of allegiance, the obligation of search, and the obligation of action. Moral settlement follows personal volition under the sense of obligation. If the person has willed against his obligation, he has distress of spirit; if he has been true to his obligation, he has a flash of moral content. - CURTIS, The Christian Faith, pp. 31-33.]

the regulative faculty of the soul. A good conscience is one which is enlightened by the Spirit of truth, and, therefore, always makes its decisions according to the standards of God's holy Word. Similarly, also, the conscience may be distinguished as pure (I Tim. 8:9; II Tim. 1:3); evil (Heb. 10:22); defiled (Titus 1:15); weak (I Cor. 8:7); and seared (I Tim. 4:2). To these are sometimes added such descriptions of conscience as steady or wavering, morbid or sound, enlightened or dark. In its objective sense, conscience may be distorted by ignorance or vice, and so form erroneous judgments; and as subjective, it may justify and bring peace as the effect of goodness; or it may condemn by the pangs of remorse. It is for this reason that the earlier moralists spoke of it as the sunthrhsiV or "inner guard" which kept watch over the hidden sources of the will.

William Whewell in his "Elements of Morality" gives the following two rules as being indispensable for the healthy action of conscience.

(1) We should never undertake any action of moral import, much less embark on any course of action without first obtaining a distinct utterance from the conscience, in affirmation or derogation of the moral lawfulness of such action. We must not allow ourselves to act on a mere probable opinion, or doubt with respect to the right or wrong of the action. "He that doubteth is damned if he eat" (Rom. 14:23).

(2) It is an absolute rule, and one for universal observance that we should never act contrary to the dictates of conscience; even though it be warped by error or prejudice. The moral tone of every action depends on its close dependence with the inner rule; and the morality of the agent maintains a relative proportion with respect for the decision of conscience, and an honest determination in following it out to its legitimate conclusion. To act contrary to conscience must always be wrong, irrespective of the abstract right or wrong of the action; and whether that wrong be capable of correction or not. For moral culture is the abiding duty of man; our position today must not be taken as a fixed point, but as a state of transition to something better. The law of the mind must be brought gradually into closer conformity with the law of God, that is absolutely "holy and just and good"; and converting the soul" in proportion as it seeks to assimilate its teaching. Conscience is never formed, but is always in the course of formation. Therefore, though for the present, we may err in following the guidance of a mistaken conscience, yet it is better to err for a while in this direction than to be disloyal to the inner rule, which would only weaken its check upon our actions, when conscience becomes more completely informed by the supreme rule. To be unconscientious is always to be immoral. He, therefore, whose conscience is clouded by error, must abide by the consequences of such error; but he sins not in the mere following of his conscience. But he whose conscience has a wrong direction, which with proper pains and regard for the truth might be adjusted, sins when he acts in accordance with its dictation. (WHEWELL, Elements of Morality, section 275.)

 

PRACTICAL ETHICS

Practical ethics is the application of moral principles in the regulation of human conduct. Having discussed these principles, we must now consider their specific Christian application in the manifold and complex situations of life. Here as in other departments of theology, the methods of classification vary. Generally, however, the subject matter is arranged in the twofold division of (1) Duties to God, and (2) Duties to man; or the threefold classification of (1) Duties to God; (2) Duties to self; and (3) Duties to others. As to the order of treatment adopted here, we may say that since God is the foundation of all moral obligation, theistic ethics naturally comes first. Strictly speaking, all obligation must be to God as the Moral Governor, and all duties must, therefore, be duties to God. Here there is a parallel to the truth in dogmatics that all sin is ultimately against God. The duties to self come second in order, as essential to the formation of Christian character. This is necessary in a system which holds that the tree must first be made good if the fruit is to be good (Matt. 12:33); and, also, that there can be no fruit except the branch abide in the vine (John 15:4, 5). Christian character is unfolded only in loyal relation to the divine. Lastly, there is the regulation of the external conduct toward others, as having its source in, and flowing from the character of the individual. We shall then, in our treatment of Practical Ethics, observe the following outline: (I) Theistic Ethics: or Duties to God; (II) Individual Ethics: or Duties to One's Self; and (III) Social Ethics: or Duties to Others. Following this, we shall give brief attention to the Institutions of Christianity as being a part of Social Ethics, and yet differing in this, that they are more specifically corporate than individual in character. Here we shall mention (1) Marriage, and the duties of the family; and (2) The State, and the duties of citizenship. This will bring us to a consideration of the Church, which forms the subject matter of the two following chapters.

(I) THEISTIC ETHICS: OR DUTIES TO GOD

The three theistic virtues are faith, hope and charity. These, whether considered in themselves, in their effects, or in their growth and perfection, occupy the first place in the Christian life. Upon these, all other virtues depend. As compared with the so-called moral virtues - prudence, justice, courage and temperance, the theistic virtues constitute the end or objective of the Christian life; while the moral virtues are either the means by which this is attained or the consequences which flow from it. The theistic virtues are superior also, in that by them we are actually united to God - to God as truth by faith; to God as faithful, by hope; and to God as the supreme good, by love. Viewed from the ethical standpoint, we may analyze these virtues as follows: (1) Faith is at once an act and a habit, an act in that it is the outreach of the whole being toward another, consciously exercised; it is a habit, in that it is a conscious repose in the merits of another. Faith is sometimes distinguished from knowledge in this, that faith rests upon the authority or testimony of another; while knowledge arises from the perception of truth in the object itself. The sins against faith are infidelity, heresy and apostasy. Infidelity is unfaithfulness to God; heresy is unfaithfulness to truth or persistence in error or; while apostasy is in its strictest sense, a defection from religion. (2) Hope is that divine virtue which furnishes the motive whereby we trust with unwavering confidence in the Word of God, and look forward to the obtainment of all that He has promised us. Like faith, hope may be viewed either as an act or a state, and in either instance, the motive and the objective are the same. Hope relates to the future and, therefore, implies expectation, but every expectation cannot be classified as hope. Only desirable objects can be hoped for. The sins against hope may be twofold - either despair or diffidence on the one hand, or presumption and false confidence on the other. Despair is the abandonment of all hope of salvation. Diffidence consists in hoping without due confidence. Presumption is taking advantage of God's goodness to commit sin; while false confidence is hoping in an inordinate manner. (3) Charity or divine love is the virtue whereby we give ourselves wholly to God as the sovereign good. It is a divinely infused virtue, the motive of which is God's goodness, and its object both God and our neighbor. Charity considered as an ethical virtue in its broadest sense signifies complacency in what is good. In a stricter sense, it is that affection which wishes well, or desires what is good, to another. If we desire good to another, not on his own account but for ours, we have the love of concupiscence, because it proceeds from a desire for our own advantage. If we wish well to another for his own sake, we have the love of benevolence; and if this is mutual, we have the love of friendship. Charity may be either perfect or imperfect. In order to be perfect it must (1) be inspired by a perfect motive; and (2) it must loyally adhere to God with the highest appreciation. If it fails in either of these aspects, it falls short of perfect love. Three things demand our attention in the further consideration of this subject: (1) Reverence as the Fundamental Duty to God; and (2) The Duty and Forms of Prayer; and (3) The Supreme Duty of Worship.

Reverence as the Fundamental Duty to God. Reverence has been defined as a "profound respect mingled with fear and affection," or a "strong sentiment of respect and esteem, sometimes with traces of fear." Coleridge defined it as a "synthesis of love and fear." As

[Reverence is the supreme and eternal duty and grace of the created spirit. It is both the source and the issue of all godliness. The three passages, "Holy and reverend is his name" (Psalms 111:9); "Hallowed be thy name" (Matt. 6:9); "Sanctify the Lord God in your hearts" (I Peter 3:15), in their combination teach us first how awful is God in Himself, then that the coming of His kingdom is the universal acknowledgment of His majesty, and finally that this reverence must be the inmost sentiment of our individual hearts. Reverence is fear tempered by love. In the Old Testament the fear predominated, in the New Testament the love; but the sentiment of reverence pervades all religion on earth and in heaven. Whether as sacred dread or loving fear, it abideth always. As the spirit formed by religion it is universal in its influence. It is the habitual sense of the presence of God that gives dignity of life, and makes the character of him who cultivates it venerable. It extends to all divine things as well as to the name of God himself: to His Word, to His ordinances, to His created temple of the world, and to all that is His. In His presence more particularly it is awe. - POPE, Compend. Chr. Th., III, pp.225, 226.]

such, reverence is the supreme duty of man the creature to God the Creator. It is the sentiment from which all worship springs. Awe adds to reverence the implication of solemn wonder mingled with dread, in view of the great and terrible presence of Deity, or of that which is sublime and sacred by virtue of that Presence. Reverence when expressed silently is known as adoration, and carries with it the added idea of homage or personal devotion. Praise is the audible expression which extols the Divine Perfections; and Thanksgiving is expressed gratitude for the mercies of God. The duty of the devout spirit, therefore, is to offer to God the adoration of a creature, the homage of a subject, and the praise of a worshiper. St. Paul in his enumeration of the works of the flesh, mentions two as violations of divine things -idolatry and witchcraft (Gal. 5:20). (1) Idolatry is commonly defined as the paying of divine honors to idols, images, or other created objects; but it may consist, also, in excessive admiration, veneration or love for any person or thing. Thus covetousness is regarded as idolatry (Col. 3:5). (2) Witchcraft is the practice of the arts of a sorcerer or sorceress, which was commonly believed to be the consequence of intercourse with

[Superstition is not an excess of religion - at least in the ordinary sense of the word excess - as if anyone could have too much of true religion, but any misdirection of religious feeling, manifested either in showing religious veneration or regard to objects which deserve none; that is, properly speaking, the worship of false gods; or, in the assignment of such a degree, or such a kind of religious veneration to any object, as that object, though worthy of some reverence, does not deserve; or in the worship of the true God through the medium of improper rites or ceremonies It may arise from a sense of guilt, from bodily indisposition, or from erroneous reasoning. - WHATELY.

Godlessness is practical atheism, or living as if there were no God. When it accompanies a knowledge and acknowledgment of God's existence and claims, it is the last and worst of all vices, as wilfully aiming the death-blow at man's highest being and mission. The perversion of religious culture, as manifested in the conduct, is perhaps more offensive than that in the views. Hypocrisy would cover the absence of true reverence for God by playing a part and putting on all the outward show of piety. Cant is hypocrisy as exhibited in language and air. Bigotry is the manifestation of an irrational or blind partiality for a particular party or creed. Fanaticism adds to the blind partiality of bigotry an equally blind hatred of all opposers, and a pretension to inspiration. These are all religious vices of the most insidious and dangerous character; hypocrisy and cant dethrone truth and make man a living lie; bigotry and fanaticism dethrone reason and moral principle and give the man over to prejudice and passion. - GREGORY, Christian Ethics, p. 210.]

Satan. The injunction, therefore, forbids all enchantments, necromancy, spiritism, or other of the so-called black arts.

The Duty and Forms of Prayer. Prayer is a duty which is obligatory upon all men as an expression of the creature's dependence upon the Creator. It may be said that what the habitual sense of reverence is to adoration and praise, the spirit of dependence is to prayer. Dr. Wakefield defines prayer as "the offering of our desires to God through the mediation of Jesus Christ, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, and with suitable dispositions, for things agreeable to his will." (Wakefield, Christian Theology, p. 492) . Desire is excited by a sense of want or a felt need, and leads immediately to prayer. One thing have I desired of the Lord, that will I seek after (Psalms 27:4). Without a proper appreciation of the importance of divine blessings, prayer will be unavailing. Hence the kingdom of heaven suffereth violence and the violent take it by force

[Rev. Luther Lee points out that "the duty of prayer has its foundation in reason, and may be seen to be suited to our relation to God, and wonderfully adapted to the other parts of the economy of gospel salvation, and suited to promote piety and devotion." He calls attention to the following points. (1) Prayer is suited to the relation we sustain to God. God is the Author of all being, and the source of all blessedness; while we are His creatures, receiving all the good we enjoy from him. (2) Prayer, in its very exercise is admirably adapted to preserve a knowledge of the true God, and to keep man's erratic mind from running into idolatry. It has been seen that prayer implies an apprehension of God's universal presence and everywhere operative power. To pray is to bring God directly before the mind, in all the infinity of His attributes, so far as the human mind can grasp an idea of the infinite God. (3) The exercise of prayer must promote a sense of our dependence upon God, which it is all important to keep fully awake in the mind. It has been seen that prayer implies this sense of dependence, that there is no true prayer without it. (4) Prayer, upon the principles advanced above, must tend to promote devotion. It will produce this result as a mere mental habit, allowing it to be performed with honesty of intention. Devotion to the world, and constantly occupying the mind with worldly matters, will increase worldly mindedness; and so constant habit of abstracting the mind from matters of the world, and putting forth an effort to concentrate the thoughts and desires on god in prayer, must tend to lessen worldly mindedness, and increase a disposition to worship, and a deeper feeling of devotion, when we attempt it. (5) Prayer, as a required duty, is peculiarly adapted to help the exercise of faith, which in the gospel, is the fundamental condition of salvation. (6) The mental and moral state of the soul, which is necessary in order to offer acceptable prayer to God, is just that state which renders us proper recipients of His saving grace. - Luther Lee, Christian Theology, pp.356, 357.]

(Matt. 11:12). Prayer must be offered to God, through Christ, and in the Spirit, in order to be acceptable. Prayer must also be offered for things agreeable to the will of God, and the petitions must be presented with faith in His promises. Dr. Pope points out that "the formal acts of prayer are manifold, expressed by a number of terms common to both Testaments, and combining the spirit and the act. The leading word proseuch is one of those. It is always prayer to God, and that without limitation. When St. Paul exhorts, in everything by prayer and supplication with thanksgiving let your requests be made known unto God, he distinguishes from this general prayer the dehsiV or supplication for individual benefits. It is the difference between prayer and petition. The requests of the supplication, aithmata , simply express the individuality of the prayer: the supplication noting our need (dei), and the request the utterance of that need. When our Saviour said, In that day ye shall ask me nothing (John 16:23), He used another term signifying, in the case of the disciples, the interrogation of perplexity: there it is erwtan, which is changed for aitein in what follows: Verily, verily, I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall ask the Father in my name, he will give it you. The former word is used of our Lord's own prayer, never the latter: hence the former has in it more of familiarity, and is never used of human prayer. Save, indeed, in one passage, which leads us to the prayer of intercession. St. John changes aithsei into erwthsh concerning

[On the general duty of secret prayer it may be remarked, (1) Every person, so far as circumstances will allow, should have some place which is to him his closet of prayer. The spirit of the command requires this. Without it, prayer will be likely to be neglected. (2) As no time is settled by the word, for the performance of this duty, it demands a reasonable construction and application, in this particular, on the part of Christians. The fact that no law prescribes how many times, and at what hours secret prayer shall be performed, shows the wisdom of the Law-giver. No rule could settle these points, which would not be impossible to some, or diminish devotion with others. These points are settled specifically by the law of Mahomet, and the result is, prayer with them has become a mere form. It being left by Christ to be settled by the enlightened judgment, under a sense of accountability to God, and a general rule requiring secret prayer, which judgment will be made in view of surrounding circumstances, and the strength of the feeling of piety, the tendency is to promote the spirit of devotion more than any specific rule could do. - Lee, E1ements of Theology, p. 359.]

cerning the sin unto death, I do not say that he shall pray for it (I John 5:16): we may ask in confidence concerning every other sin, but concerning this we are to leave the erwtan to Christ. Intercessory prayer has no term to express our precise idea of it. The exhortation is generally to supplication for all saints, and for all men, after the example of the Lord's intercession. In the passage to Timothy St. Paul uses for once the word enteuxeiV, intercessions, which, however, means familiar and confident prayers, as coming from the word entugcanein literally to fall in with a person and enter into familiar speech with him. In the strength of Christ's intercession we also are commanded to intercede, or to speak confidently with God on behalf of others: save indeed with the one reservation mentioned above. Intercessory prayer must blend with all our supplications." (POPE, Compend. Chr. Th., III, pp. 228, 229.)

The general duty of prayer is usually divided as follows: (1) Ejaculatory Prayer; (2) Private Prayer; (3) Family or Social Prayer; and (4) Public Prayer.

1. Ejaculatory Prayer is a term applied to "those secret and frequent aspirations of the heart to God for general or particular blessings, by which a just sense of our habitual dependence upon God and of our wants and dangers may be expressed while we are employed in the common affairs of life" (Wakefield). It denotes a devotional attitude of mind and heart in which a constant spirit of prayer is maintained. It includes all those impromptu expressions of prayer and praise which flow from a heart which is cultivated to Rejoice evermore,

[In speaking of ejaculatory prayer, Dr. Wakefield says, "The cultivation of this spirit is clearly enjoined upon us by St. Paul, who exhorts us to 'pray without ceasing,' and 'in every thing' to 'give thanks'; and also to set our 'affection on things above,' exhortations which imply a holy and devotional frame of mind, and not merely acts of prayer performed at intervals. The high and unspeakable advantages of this habit are, that it induces a watchful and guarded mind; prevents religion from deteriorating into a lifeless form; unites the soul to God; induces continual supplies of divine influence; and opposes an effectual barrier, by the grace thus acquired, against the encroachments of worldly anxieties and the force of temptations. The existence of this spirit of prayer and thanksgiving is one of the grand distinctions between nominal and real Christians; and by it the measure of vital and effective Christianity enjoyed by any individual may ordinarily be determined. - WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, p. 295.]

pray without ceasing, and In every thing give thanks (I Thess. 5:16-18). This form of prayer was held by the fathers as a distinguishing mark of genuine piety, but the habit needs to be guarded against any formality which would leave the impression of irreverence.

2. Private Prayer is expressly enjoined by our Lord in the words, But thou, when thou prayest, enter into thy closet, and when thou hast shut thy door, pray to thy Father which is in secret; and thy Father which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly (Matt. 6:6). The duty of private prayer is further enforced by the example of our Lord and His apostles. The reason for the institution of private prayer is shown by our Lord's words, to be that of friendly and confiding communion with God in all those matters which pertain to the deeper feelings and interests of the individual. The strict performance of private prayer has ever been regarded as one of the surest marks of genuine piety and Christian sincerity.

3. Family or Social Prayer grows out of the nature of the social structure itself. Family prayer is basic as respects the whole system of Christian worship. The worship of patriarchal times was largely domestic; and the sacred office of father or master of the household passed from Judaism to Christianity. Early Christian worship was at first chiefly confined to the family, and only gradually took on wider significance. Hence family worship became an essential factor in the public services, by inculcating a spirit of devotion and by training in the forms of worship. Parents may as well conclude, therefore, that they are under no obligation to feed and clothe their children, or to educate them for lawful employment or one of the professions, as to conclude that they are under no obligation to afford them the proper religious instruction. Social prayer may be broader than the family; or it may be limited to a few individuals from different families. Here again we have the words of our Lord, That if two of you shall agree on earth as touching any thing that they shall ask, it shall be done for them of my Father which is in heaven (Matt. 18:19). "From all these considerations, we conclude," says Dr. Ralston, "that family prayer, though not directly enjoined by express precept, is yet a duty so manifest from the general principles of the gospel, the character of the Christian, the constitution of the family, the benefits it imparts, and the general promises of God, that it must be of binding obligation on every Christian who is the head of a household." (RALSTON, Elements of Divinity, p.780.)

4. Public Prayer is used in a wide sense to include every branch of public worship, such as prayer, praise, the reading of the Scriptures, and the singing of psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. Public prayer was a part of the Jewish worship, at least from the time of Ezra, and was performed in the synagogues. Our Lord frequently attended and participated in these services, and by this means placed His approval upon the practice of public prayer. This duty, however, is also founded upon the express declaration of the Scriptures. In his instructions to Timothy, St. Paul says, I exhort therefore, that, first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks, be made for all men (I Tim. 2:1); and again, I will therefore that men pray every where, lifting up holy hands, without wrath and doubting (I Tim. 2:8). The Epistle to the Hebrews contains a similar injunction also, Let us consider one another to provoke unto love and to good works: not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is; but exhorting one another: and so much the more, as ye see the day approaching (Heb. 10:24, 25). Public worship is designed to benefit each individual worshiper, to keep alive the sense of dependence upon God as the Giver of every good and perfect gift, and to publicly express the grateful remembrance of every material and spiritual blessing.

The Supreme Duty of Worship. The union of all the offices of devotion constitutes divine worship. This is the highest duty of man. It includes the active offering to God of the tribute due Him, together with the supplication of His benefits. Both the active and passive phases are involved, as in the text, The Lord is good unto them that wait for him, to the soul that seeketh him (Lam. 3:25) Worship blends meditation and contemplation with prayer, and these through the spirit, strengthen the soul for its work of faith and labor of love. As worship marks the consummation of all ethical duty to God, so the end of all worship is spiritual union with God. This is the goal set for the church by our Lord in His high-priestly prayer. He prayed that they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us (John 17:21). This is not, however, a pantheistic union, as pagan mysticism taught, but a personal, spiritual union, in which the identity of the individual is preserved. It is a union of affection, of like-mindedness, and identity of purpose. "Worship is the recognition of Christ," says Bishop McIlvaine, "and the ascription to Him of everything which is beautiful and glorious and desirable. It is the necessary tendency of all true worship to assimilate the worshiper into the

[Worship has played an important part, not only in the history of the Christian Church, but in the history of the world. Even in the most primitive forms of human life and civilization, worship has always been a prominent activity. As civilization advances, the forms of worship change, but the practice of worship never dies. The great moments of life, birth, marriage and death, have ever been the occasions for special acts of worship. It may be said that over the whole course of history, man has paid more attention to his worship than to any other activity. We need, therefore, to clearly distinguish its meaning, that we may better enter into this valuable experience. Intelligent participation in worship is more valuable than the unintelligent following of mere custom.

The following definitions of worship may be noted. "Worship is the adoration of God, the aspiration of supreme worth to God, and the manifestation of reverence in the presence of God." - Sperry. "Worship is both a means and an end in itself. It is unquestionably the chief means of inspiring and motivating Christian conduct and character; and it is also a satisfying experience of self-expression, self-dedication and adoration for the glory of God." - FISKE.

Worship has been called the "I thank you" of the heart. It is an act of spiritual politeness, as reasonable and appropriate as it is improving and beautiful. A sense of decency and gratitude urges us to it, and the comfort and satisfaction it brings is proof of its propriety. - POTTS, Faith Made Easy, p. 367.

Every truth contains within itself its peculiar duty. Every revelation of God is always a commandment, telling us something of him which we did not know before, and bidding us do for him that which we were not doing before. The truth is grasped and realized only in the performance of the duty; the duty must find its inspiration in the truth lying behind it. A man who aims faithfully and persistently to do the right will not long be kept in darkness as to what is right. A religion which is from God must touch practically upon human life at every point. - BISHOP McILVAINE.]

likeness of the being worshiped. Thus the public and private worship of Christ becomes one of the chief agencies in our redemption. The thoughts and feelings of the heart demand for their completeness, a corresponding expression. Faith finds this expression in the services of the church and the duties of the Christian life.

[Evelyn Underhill points out that in the phenomena of worship, two currents of life meet - one proceeding from the transcendent God, the other flowing from the religious life of the subject. The descending current includes all forms of revelation, the ascending, all forms of prayer. Nor does the mutual action of the two currents exclude the primacy of the divine action; for this is manifest, not only in the descending current of the Word, of Revelation and the Sacraments, but also in its immanent action within the life of souls. This acknowledgment of our total dependence upon the free action of God, iminanent and transcendent, is and must ever be a part of true worship. It is interesting to note that the term "prevenient grace" so popular in Arminian theology, is again coming into use, in connection with the idea of worship. Man could never have produced this disposition of the soul. It does not appear spontaneously from within the created order. The awed conviction of the reality of the eternal over against us - this sense of God in one form or another, is in fact a revelation of prevenient grace, proportioned to the capacity of the creature. It is something wholly other than ourselves, and not deducible from finite experiences, it is "the splendor and distinctness of God." The easy talk of the pious naturalist, therefore, as to man's approach to God, is irrational, impudent and irreverent, unless the priority of God's approach to man be constantly kept in mind. (Cf. EVELYN UNDERHILL, Worship.)

Our religious life requires giving. It withers under the constant desire to simply get. He who has not learned to worship inclines to the belief that there is no being more worthy of reverence than himself. He becomes as selfish as Shylock in that very exercise, one great design of which is to counteract the selfish tendencies of life. The essence of worship is, that in itself it is dethroned and God enthroned. By it we recognize Him as somewhat other than a very powerful person whom we may use for our convenience and benefit. A doubter who in his vast uncertainty changes his aim to giving, and away from himself, is the one whose gloom will lighten. - PRUDDEN. (Cf. POTTS, Faith Made Easy, p. 367.)

Worship rises high above all forms. If it attempts to find utterance through them it will set them on fire, and glow and burn in their consuming flame and rise as incense to God. If it starts out with the impartation and the receiving of the great thought of God; if it waits to hear His infinite will and eternal love, it spreads its pinions to fly to His bosom, there to breathe out its unutterable devotion. We have here the way of worship. They cry with a loud voice, saying, "Salvation to our God which sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb" (Rev. 7:917). It is not the learning of some new thing; not a new shading of some thought which is a matter of interest; it is not the repeating, parrot-like, of some new form. But it is the cry of the soul, deep, earnest, intense, loud; the farthest removed from what might be regarded as cathedral service, with the intoning of prayer and praise, and where the light falls but dimly, the muffled music and sentiment rolling back upon the mind in subdued sensibility. I suppose this is about the best earth-born, man-made form of worship one can find. But that which is here described is something altogether different. It is also equally far removed from a gathering of the people, who, without solemnity or soul earnestness wait to be sung at, and prayed at, and preached at, until the time comes when they can decently get away. The worship here seen rises from every soul; it is the outbursting passion of every heart; it breaks forth like a mighty tornado. One thing seems certain, the worship of the blood-washed company 15 not the still small voice.(DR. P. F. Sermon: The Lamb Amid the Blood-washed, pp. 166, 167.)

 

(II) INDIVIDUAL ETHICS: OR DUTIES TO ONESELF

Individual ethics is that division of practical ethics which treats of the application of the moral law to the regulation of man's conduct insofar as it has reference to himself as an individual moral agent. There is a sense, of course, in which man's character is dependent upon his external obligations, but it will be simpler to treat individual ethics as forming the Christian character; and reserve the treatment of external obligations for the division of Social Ethics. Man's duty to himself is frequently summed up in Self-conservation, Self-culture, and Self-conduct. For the purpose of this Work, however, with its emphasis upon the development of the Christian life, a simpler outline will be more appropriate. We shall, therefore, give attention to the following: (1) The Sanctity of the Body; (2) The Province of the Intellectual, Emotional, Moral and Aesthetic Powers of the Mind; and (3) The Development of the Spiritual Life.

The Sanctity of the Body. Since man's physical existence is essential to the fulfillment of his mission in this life, it is his first duty to conserve and develop all the powers of his being. Christianity regards the body, not as a prison house of the soul, but as a temple of the Holy Spirit. This gives sanctity to the body; and the preservation of this sanctity becomes a guiding principle in all matters of physical welfare. The specific duties pertaining to the body are as follows:

1. There must be the preservation and development of the bodily powers. This becomes a high and holy duty, for man's existence in the world depends upon this bodily organism. This is intuitively recognized as soon as the agent comes to realize the relation existing between the soul and the body. He who neglects his physical being, places his whole mission in jeopardy; and he who destroys it, brings his mission to an end. Hence self-murder is strictly prohibited. Wherever there is a morally enlightened conscience, men have agreed that suicide is contrary to the end for which life is given. So, also, self-mutilation is forbidden. This includes any bodily injury or dismemberment, such as disfigures the body or prevents the complete functioning of the physical organism. Christianity is opposed to ascetic practices also, such as were found among the mystics of the Middle Ages, and as they are practiced in pagan countries at the present time. The fasts and self-denials which Christianity enjoins upon men, are intended to invigorate rather than enfeeble the human system.

2. There must be the care and culture of the body through exercise, rest, sleep and recreation. Man was made for labor and for rest, and both are essential to his physical well-being. The mere possession of wealth does not exclude man from the duty of labor. The world owes no man a living who is able to earn it for himself. Holiness dignifies labor and makes it delightful, whether with the hands, the head or the heart. It also dignifies rest and makes the Sabbath a symbol of the spiritual "rest of faith." Too often there is a failure to discern the true meaning of the Sabbath which is not only for worship but also for repose. Many never give their bodies a Sabbath, Sunday being as laborious as the other days of the week. As the soil of Israel came into possession of its Sabbath by seventy years of captivity, so those who fail to make the Sabbath a day of worship and rest, may finally observe these Sabbaths by enforced rest through the providence of God. In the highly specialized forms of labor demanded by modern civilization, the tension of both mind and body is such that periods of rest and recreation become an essential factor in the preservation of the body. This recreation should be such as to renew the physical powers, and minister to both the mental and spiritual life of the individual.

3. The appetites and passions of the body must be subjugated to man's higher intellectual and spiritual interests. Some have assumed that holiness implies the destruction or near destruction of the physical appetites and pleasurable emotions. This is not according to the Scriptures. Holiness destroys nothing that is essential to man, either physically or spiritually. The appetites and passions remain, but they are freed from the incubus of sin. The early disciples ate their meat with gladness and singleness of heart (Acts 2:46); and one of the apostles warns against those seducing spirits who go about forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats, which God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them which believe and know the truth (I Tim. 4:1, 3). Holiness, however, does not necessarily compel a normal condition of the appetites and passions. Sometimes perverted appetites exist for a time in those who have clean hearts, but who have not had as yet, any light on these specific matters. Both perverted and unnatural appetites are so subject to the power of God as to be instantly regulated or destroyed through faith. All appetite is instinctive and unreasoning. It knows nothing of right and wrong, but simply craves indulgence. It never controls itself, but is subject to control. Hence St. Paul says, But I keep under my body, and bring it into subjection: lest that by any means, when I have preached to others, I myself should be a castaway (I Cor. 9:27).

4. The care of the body demands proper clothing, not only for protection and comfort, but for propriety and decency. The question of dress, therefore, not only concerns the welfare of the body, but becomes, also, an expression of the character and aesthetic nature of the individual. It is for this reason made a matter of apostolic injunction. In like manner also, that women adorn themselves [kosmei'n] in modest apparel [ejn katastolh/' kosmivw/, in apparel becoming], with shamefacedness [metaV aijdou'" with modesty or shamefacedness] and sobriety [swfrosuvnh", soundness of mind]; not with broided hair, [plevgmasin, wreaths]; but (which becometh women professing godliness) [oJV prevpei gunaixiVn ejpaggellomevnai" qessevbeian which is becoming for women undertaking the worship of God] with good works (I Tim. 2:9, 10). The second text bearing upon this subject is from St. Peter. Whose adorning [kovsmo"] let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair [ejmplokh'" tricw'n braiding of hairs], and of wearing of gold [periqevsew" crusivwn placing around of golden chains], or of putting on of apparel; but let it be the hidden man of the heart, in that which is not corruptible, even the ornament of a meek and quiet spirit, which is in the sight of God of great price (I Peter 3:3, 4). The root word which is here translated adorn, is kosmevw and signifies to adorn (Luke 21:5; Titus 2:10; I Peter 3:5); to decorate or garnish (Matt. 12:44; 23:29; Luke 11:25); to trim a lamp (Matt. 25:7). It is used in three forms in the texts above mentioned, kosmei'n to adorn; kosmivw/ becoming; and kovsmo" adorning. With these interpretations before us, we may draw from them the following scriptural principles, which though directed primarily to women, are applicable in spirit to all. (1) Women are to adorn themselves with becoming taste in all matters of dress. This implies dress appropriate to the age, the occasion and the station in life. Here adorning is not condemned but beautifully commended as coming the profession of holiness. (2) The highest artistic taste is to be found in modesty and sound-mindedness. Proper dress should accentuate the beauty and modesty of the wearer. (3) Ornaments of gold or pearl or other costly array are prohibited as being out of harmony with the spirit of meekness and modesty, and as unnecessary to true Christian adornment. We may say then that the Christian should dress in a manner that will not attract undue attention, either by expensive apparel or eccentric plainness; and that will leave upon observers, the impression of the wearer as being of a meek and quiet spirit.

5. The body must be preserved holy. Holiness may be said to belong to the body in two particulars: (1) It is holy according to the use to which it is put by the spirit. To render the body impure by devoting it to unholy service is sin. To give it over loosely to its own appetites is sin also, whether these be natural or abnormal. Hence St. Paul says, For this is the will of God, even your sanctification, that ye should abstain from fornication: that every one of you should know how to possess his vessel in sanctification and honour (I Thess. 4:3, 4); and again, Flee fornication. Every sin that a man doeth is without the body; but he that committeth fornication sinneth against his own body (I Cor. 6:18). (2) The body is holy in itself, but only in a secondary sense. Holiness as it applies to the body is wholeness or healthfulness. The body in this sense is holy, as it is healthy. It is true that it is now under the consequences of sin, and hence is called an earthen vessel. But this tenement of clay, is an important and necessary link in the process of redemption, and the body of each saint will, in the resurrection be fashioned like unto his glorious body (Phil. 3:21). During this life, the body must be the object of sanctified care, and true holiness always gives superior attention to it. But the supreme reason for the sanctity of the body, lies in the fact that it is the temple of the Holy Spirit. It is God's dwelling place. What? know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own? For ye are bought with a price: therefore glorify God in your body, and in y6ur spirit, which are God's (I Cor. 6:19, 20). The sanctity of the body, therefore, not only excludes the grosser sins - adultery, fornication, uncleanness and lasciviousness, but also the sins of intemperance - drunkenness, revellings, and such like (Gal. 5:19, 21). We may say that whatever tends to injure the body or to destroy its sanctity as the temple of the Holy Spirit, is forbidden by Christian teaching and practice.

The Intellectual, Emotional, Moral and Aesthetic Powers of the Mind. The term Mind as used in psychology is generally limited to the intellectual powers; but in theology, it commonly refers to the life of the soul in contradistinction to the physical life of the body. As the bodily manifestations depend upon the deeper physical life, so the manifestations of the soul, whether intellectual, emotional or volitional, depend upon the deeper life of the spirit. Our Lord indicates the necessity of developing all the powers of the mind, in His statement of the first commandment. He says, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength: this is the first commandment (Mark 12:30). Here the heart refers to man's inmost being - the seat of his affections, with the emphasis upon adherence to principle and purpose. The love of the soul refers to the glow of feeling which attaches to it, and comes from communion with God through the beauty of His word and works. It is the Spirit in creation, seen and recognized by the Spirit within. The mind has reference to the intellectual powers, through which love is understood and interpreted. By the term strength as here used, is meant the full devotion to God of all the powers of personality as thus developed. We may say, then, that the love of the heart is purifying, the love of the soul enriching, and the love of the mind interpretative. The first has as its object God as the supreme Good; the second, God as supreme Beauty manifested in order and harmony; and the third, God as the supreme Truth or Reality. The varying emphasis upon the different phases of love found in this commandment, give rise to those anomalies of Christian experience so frequently observed in the church. There are those whose goodness is unquestioned, 

[These several factors, which together make up religion, limit and sustain one another; for, as the feelings, for example, are indebted to the will for true profundity, so, on the other hand, energy of will depends on depth of emotion. But these all unite together, and the central point of union we call faith. Faith is a life of feeling, a life of the soul, in God (if we understand by soul the basis of personal life, wherein, through very fullness, all emotion is still vague); and no one is a believer, who has not felt himself to be in God and God in him. Faith knows what it believes, and in the light of its intuition it views the sacred truths in the midst of the agitations and turmoil of this world's life; and though its knowledge is not a comprehensive knowledge, although its intuition is not seeing face to face: although in clearness it is inferior to these forms of apprehension, yet in certitude it yields to neither; for the very essence of faith is, that it is firm, confident certitude respecting that which is not seen. Faith, finally, is the profoundest act of obedience and devotion. - Martebsen, Christian Dogmatics, p. 11.]

but who, nevertheless, are unduly narrow in their range of vision. There are those with brilliant intellectual powers, who have but little depth of emotion; and there are those who are both good and inspirational, who have never thought their way through the doctrines which they so dearly love.

1. The development of the intellect is essential to a useful Christian life. The desire to know is human and God-given, and in Christian experience, this desire is greatly intensified. Ignorance is no part of holiness. We may note, (1) That Christ is the truth, and hence the followers of Christ become "disciples" or learners. One who does not love truth, whether that truth be of a scientific, philosophical, or other cultural nature, has little appreciation of the wonderful works of God which were created through Christ the eternal Logos. One who has not a burning desire for spiritual truth, may seriously question, also, any claim to the gift of the promised Comforter, who is expressly stated to be the Spirit of Truth. (2) It is the intellect and the understanding which give vision to the soul. Hence only with the broadening of the intellectual horizons, and a spiritual insight into

[The doctrine, which we propose to advance on this somewhat difficult subject, may be regarded as implying the admission of two things: First, that the mind, in some important and true sense, is departmental; that it exists in three departments of the Intellect, the sensibilities, and the Will; and that the emotional or emotive states constitute a distinct and important subordinate division in these departments: and Second, that the operations of the Holy Spirit on the human mind are various; that they may embrace the whole of these departments, reaching and controlling the whole mind; or that, under certain circumstances, they may stop either at the intellectual department or at the emotive division of the sensitive department, producing certain important results, but leaving others without being realized. We proceed then to remark, in the first place, that it is the office of the Holy Spirit to operate, on the appropriate occasions of such operations, upon the human intellect; and especially by guiding it in the perception of the truth. The mode of the Spirit's operation upon the intellectual part, as it is upon other parts of the mind, is in many respects mysterious; but the ordinary results of His influence is the communication of truth; that is to say, the soul, when it is thus operated upon, knows spiritually what it did not know before. And it may properly be added, that the knowledge which is thus communicated will vary, both in kind and degree, in accordance with the nature of the subject or facts to be illustrated, and with the special circumstances, whatever they may be, which render a divine communication necessary. But it is not ordinarily to be expected that the operation, of which we are now speaking, will stop with the intellect. - UPHAM, Interior Life, pp. 138, 139.]

truth, can there be the enrichment of the affectional nature, and the deepening of the spiritual life. In the more immediate relation to the spiritual life, however, this grace is administered through the truth in answer to faith, and is effected by the Spirit. (3) The discriminations of the heart are frequently communicated to the mind also. Rev. T. K. Doty points out that "the doctrine of holiness, before a jargon, is now more reasonable and plain, because the processes of reasoning are carried on from the standpoint and impulse of another experience. In the same way, semi-worldly practices, under a little instruction, and many times without it, become obnoxious, and are discarded. It is also true that the mind, formerly misdirected by sinful affections, is now occasionally hindered by the purified affections, because the latter lean toward those things already supposed to be proper and right. Such suppositions measurably prevent freedom of investigation." (T. K. DOTY, Lessons in Holiness, p. 86.) (4) The breadth of understanding also makes for stability of character. Indecisions and instability are frequently the consequences of shortsightedness. Wide horizons and far distances, therefore, are essential to a continuity of purpose. St. Paul recognized this truth when he wrote that our light affliction, which is but for a moment, worketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory; while we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen: for the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal (II Cor. 4:17, 18). Self-culture, then, requires the development to the highest degree possible, of the power to see, to think, to remember and to construct. This calls for exact and wide observation, profound thought, and the under-

[We have said that man owes it to himself that to the extent of his ability he seek the perfection of his powers; especially that he so educate his intellect that he be a man of extensive Information, of sound judgment, and a correct reasoner; that he so discipline his volitioning faculty that he may always hold his appetites, desires, and affections under control, keeping their gratification within the limits prescribed by our Creator, never allowing their gratification to peril a greater good than it confers. - Raymond, Systematic Theology, m, p.104.]

standing of things in their systematic order and completeness.

2. The emotions are closely related to the intellect and the will. "By an original law of our mental nature," says Dr. Upham, "the perception of truth which is the result of an intellectual act, is ordinarily followed by an effect upon that portion of the mind which is usually designated as the emotional or emotive susceptibility; a part of the mind which as it is subsequent in the time of its action, is sometimes figuratively described as 'b mg back of the intellect'." An emotion, considered from the religious standpoint, may be defined as a movement,

[INTELLECTUAL VICES

Dr. Gregory in his "Christian Ethics" calls attention to the necessity of avoiding ignorance, stupidity, heedlessness, rashness, credulity and skepticism, as being fatal to any true mission. These vices all have their root in a vincible ignorance, and the agent is therefore bound to avoid them. He enumerates the following:

1. Ignorance may appear as want of knowledge as to the nature and consequences of any action, or want of knowledge of the mission of duty or any of its parts. In whatever form, it is reproach to the agent and a hindrance to his mission.

2. Stupidity is often not so much a defect of nature as of moral energy; and when it his this last origin it becomes immoral. The man refuses to awake to observation, reflection and judgment; and his native powers, therefore, become weak. . . .Such stupidity is immoral and vicious in proportion to the neglected endowments and the lost opportunities.

3. Heedlessness is rather occasional disregard of the nature and consequences of actions than perpetual forgetfulness. When the man allows himself to become engrossed with a few things, and these perhaps unimportant, and loses sight of the many and more important things which should properly be kept in view in deciding his action, the consequences of evil overtake him unexpectedly, and he falls in his undertakings. Such heedlessness is evidently immoral and guilty.

4. Rashness is the hardy daring of consequences seen or unseen. The man is so intent on a particular end, that though he may have abundant occasion to anticipate evil consequences, he determines to risk them, and recklessly persists in his course until the blow falls. Passion is usually the leader in this vice. It is a worse vice than stupidity or heedlessness, for the depravity it manifests is in the fullest sense wilful, and shows the reckless determination to override the moral judgement and gratifying passion at whatever cost or hazard.

5. Credulity and skepticism are opposite forms of the same vice. Want of the proper intellectual culture leaves the agent weak in judgment, and, having little grasp of principles and less power of making safe deductions from facts, he gives or withholds his faith according to his own wishes or the opinions of anyone who may have influence over him. If he be of an ardent temperament, he will be ready to believe anything, or he will be credulous; if he be of an opposite temperament, or have an ambition to be thought brilliant or original, he will be equally ready to doubt everything, or, he will be skeptical.]

sensibility, or excitement of the heart which is manifested in consciousness. It is immediately related to the intellect, being the glow of truth consciously realized and felt. All holy emotions, therefore, involve a divine as well as a human movement, but the spiritual sensibilities do not necessarily preclude those which are purely human. The ebb and flow of the emotional life is sometimes an occasion of stumbling to young or inexperienced Christians. When, however, it is seen that

[THE SPRINGS OF POWER

Power of action depends upon power of motive, and, therefore, upon power of feeling. The feelings are as important and worthy of a part of man as the intollect or will. From the very nature of the hutnan soul, there can be no powerful and persistent will in executing the mission of life unless there be powerful and sustained feeling. It is, therefore, man's duty to aim to develop all the natural affections and desires, in their proper proportion and harmony, in order that he may become a man with the full dignity of manhood, and may have a powerful motive - basis for his life. It is, therefore, man's duty to avoid all repression, perversion, or disproportionate development of the feelings. Insensibility and passion are alike immoral and vicious.

Insensibility holds the same relation to the feelings which stupidity holds to the intellect. It arises in a similar way, from the repression of feelings; so that the genesis already given of stupidity will apply to it. When it becomes general, it is one of the most deadening of vices. When it is confirmed and wilful, it becomes obduracy, and must appear both repulsive and guilty to every right - thinking being, and that whether it takes the form of insensibility to man's own highest interests and destiny, or to the claims of his fellows for affection and sympathy, or to God's claims.

Passion arises from the inordinate and ungoverned action of the affections and desires, as developed out of harmony and proportion, and made the end of action rather than its spring. When passion has completed its development, reason and will become its slaves, and the man loses his truest manhood.

It is obvious that under a wrong and evil culture each of the springs of action furnishes the germ of some passion. First, from Lower Feelings. In the undue development of the appetites and animal sensibilities arises the milder vice of sentimentality, which leads its victim to weep with equal ease over the agonies of a pet canary and a victim of the Inquisition; together with all those base and brutal vices of gluttony, intemperance, sensuality, which are usually designated by passion in its base sense. second, from the Higher Feelings. In the proper development of the higher feelings there arises, from the side of the affections, pride, or that inordinate self-esteem which shows itself in the disposition to overrate what one possesses, and in haughtiness and loftiness of manners; egotism, which leads one to make himself prominent; vanity, which is allied to pride, egotism and conceit, self-praise and self-commendation, and which is manifested in a desire to attract notice and gain admiration in a small way, and which would, therefore, be ridiculed as weak if it were not condemned as immoral; and all other forms of selfishness from the side of the desires aimless restlessness, irrational curiosity, unbridled ambition, and base covetousness, which are all easily understood, and which are all condemned by mankind as viclous. - Gregory, Christian Ethics, pp. 206, 207.]

emotion depends upon the perception of new truth, or upon familiar truths seen in new aspects, the secret of stability and faith will have been learned. Truth seen and realized through the Spirit, brings the glow of emotion; but that same truth, even though it be fully incorporated in the spiritual life of the individual, may become familiar and hence lose its emotional glow. The essential thing, then, in the development of the emotional life is to search the Word for new truth, or to plead the Spirit's guidance into the deeper aspects of truths already known. Feeling apart from truth leads into dangerous fanaticism; truth which gives rise to strong emotion becomes a supreme power in the life of holiness. The man who moves others is the man who is himself moved upon by the truth. To act from principle is worthy, but to act from principle on fire, is the high privilege of every New Testament Christian. The emotional aspects of truth, however, are not lost when the conscious glow subsides. These have been built into the life-deeper down than temporary feeling, and as such give dominancy to motive, purpose and character. Under the New Testament dispensation, the whole process is lifted by the Spirit into what St. Paul calls, a being changed into the same image from glory to glory (II Cor. 3:18). "But the transfiguring glory, which changes the soul more fully into the divine image, is the work resulting from the manifestation in us of the divine 

[When the Lord sanctifies a soul, that soul knows what the conscious indwelling glory is, but it knows very little of what the outworkings of that glory are, in being and in life. Glory as a joy, as a flame kindling and burning in every sentiment and emotion is glorious, but glory in being, in character, in life is far more glorious. When Moses saw the flame in the bush and heard God talk to him, and removed his shoes because the place whereon he stood was holy ground, he was surely moved by emotions which he had never before felt, and a transfiguring glory came into his soul. But afterward on the Mount, the fire so continuously burned in him and about him that it permeated every part of his being. It was something more than emotion for he "wist not that his face shone." Out beyond emotion, there was a dominancy of divine glory - more than will, purpose, emotion, character. Somewhat like unto this there is a glory that transforms the affections, directs the purpose and strengthens the will. It is enclosed, so to speak, in a rough onconducting, translucent manhood, but the transforming by the Spirit of God goes on and on, as we gaze into the glory of God as revealed in the face of Jesus Christ, in the mirror of His word. - Dr. P. F. BRESEE, Sermon: The Transferred Image, p.149.]

glory - more and more marvelous, ever more and more complete - and yet seemingly, more and more incomplete, because of the added revelation of our possibilities and privileges in Christ Jesus. There is no top to the divine heights; there is no shore to the ocean of God's perfections. The soul bathes and drinks, and drinks and bathes, and says, 'I know Him better and love Him more forever and forever and, yet, I stand awe inspired in the presence of the infinite glory, which, though I come nigh, is ever unapproachable; though I bathe my soul in it and am filled yet its measureless heights and depths and length and breadths overwhelm me.' " - Dr. P. F. Bresee, Sermon: The Transferred Image.

3. The moral nature requires development. Here we refer primarily to the discipline of the will with its obligation and responsibility. It is only by choices that moral character is formed, and conduct is wholly dependent upon moral character. Hence the impulses and volitions of the soul must be brought under the control of the will and subordinated to the highest good. Two things are involved - the adoption of correct moral standards, and the discipline of the will. (1) Correct moral standards are derived ultimately from the Word of God, and are communicated to the individual by means of the social structure. They may be learned from teachers, from a study of the Scriptures or other works bearing upon this subject, from the observance of correct social practices, from the examples of good men, and in some sense from native intuition. But they must be learned - they cannot be had otherwise. It is the duty of each individual, therefore, to cultivate the highest standards of ethical life, and to conscientiously

[Spiritual emotions are expressed like all others. Their channels are natural, rather than supernatural. A lack of thoughtfulness regarding this truth has greatly hindered the work of salvation at many times and places. The multitude count it as a sin to appear spiritually moved, especially in some ways, and to any great degree. But, really, it may sometimes be sinful not to be so. If ordinary pleasures and pains be allowed to manifest themselves in the voice, and by various physical movements, there is no sound reason why purely spiritual pleasures and pains may not have the same privileges. The many attacks on these religious manifestations are really on religion itself. They are attempts to cramp it into frozen and unyielding forms that soon leave it empty and void. - T. K. Dory, Lessons in Holiness, p. 95.]

observe every rule of moral obligation. (2) The discipline of the will is effected only through controlled choices. Man learns to do by doing, and he gains facility only in constancy of action. Duty at first costs self-denial, and is determined only by severe conflict. There must be vigorous effort and eternal vigilance. However, with each duty done, new strength is acquired according to the law of habit, and the pathway of duty becomes easier and brighter. It is as the path of the just that shineth more and more unto the perfect day (Prov. 4:18). The province of discipline, whether by the self or by others, is exceedingly important. Without it there can never be developed that strength of purpose and ruggedness of character which becomes the true soldier of the cross. Too often through misguided

[VICES CONNECTED WITH THE WILL

The vices more immediately connected with the will as distinguished from the intellect or emotions are servility and independence, fickleness and obstinacy. 

Servility includes not only the assent to be a slave and obey a master regards only his own ends, but all mean and cringing submission or fawning sycophancy. It includes the blind surrender of the will to any finite and fallible leader whatever, whether in fashion, business, politics, morals or religion; and the equally blind and irrational surrender of the will to perverse public sentiment in any of its aspects.

It may manifest itself in hypocrisy, when the man does not dare openly to assert his freedom of opinion or action. It cringes to escape harm, flatters to win favor, makes a show of humility to procure praise, and

Indulges in false disparagement to gain compliments. It shows itself in general trimming and time-serving, in which the man sacrifices his manhood and becomes the mere plaything of circumstances. In all its forms and manifestations, servility must be achnowledged at once base and immoral.

Independence, in its immoral form, is the opposite of servility. It is obvious that there is an independence, which consists in proper self-assertion, and which is praiseworthy and virtuous. The improper and vicious independence consists in unnecessary and improper self-assertion, as against rightful authority or just law, or where it involves a culpable disregard for the opinions or feelings of others. A weakness, no less immoral than that exhibited in servility, may be shown in "speaking one's mind" on all occasions, without reference to timeliness of the utterance.

Fickleness and obstinacy are vices of opposite characters. In the former, the will changes constantly, without reference to any proper reasons or motives; in the latter the will remains fixedly the same, with out any regard to any proper reasons or motives. Both are irrational. Both are likewise immoral, as it is man's duty to give heed to all consideration fitted to influence a rational being. Both prevent the accomplishment of man's mission; the one keeping him from turning his energies in any one direction long enough to accomplish anything, and the other turning them persistently in some wrong direction. Gregory, Christian Ethics, pp. 207, 208.]

love, the youth are shielded from the responsibility of their own choices, and, therefore, suffer from arrested development. This is manifested not only in a lack of self-discipline, but also in a failure to appreciate the just obligations they owe to others. For this reason we are exhorted to despise not the chastening of the Lord, nor faint when we are rebuked of Him, For whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and scourgeth every son whom he receiveth. . . .Now no chastening for the present seemeth to be joyous, but grievous: nevertheless afterward it yieldeth the peaceable fruit of righteousness unto them which are exercised thereby (Heb. 12:6, 11).

4. Man has an aesthetical nature also, which requires cultivation. The various phases of personality, such as the intellect, the sensibilities and the will, must not only be given attention, but Christian character demands that these be developed in such proportions as to

[The law of habit is one of the most powerful principles connected with man's culture. First, it requires that the act, or exercise of the power be repeated at regular and moderate intervals. Second, this repetition results in inclination or tendency to the act repeated, although at the outset it may be disagreeable and even repulsive. Third, this tendency increases in power with the repetition of the act, and gives increasing pleasure to him who complies with it, and growing pain to him who resists it. Fourth, when the tendency is fully confirmed, the agent comes at last to perform the accustomed act with no conscious effort. His being has acquired a sot in that accustomed direction of action, which renders it certain that he will continue to perform the act with ease and power, without even thinking of it. - Gregory, Christian Ethics, p. 203.

The power of habit when perverted, becomes a destructive force. In explanation of this, Dr. Bowen says, "The process is a simple one, being merely a transference of the affections from the end to the means. By the association of ideas that which was at first loved or practiced only as an instrument becomes the leading idea and the chief object of pursuit. Thus, in the downward course, money, at first desired only as a means of gratifying the appetites, or of answering some higher ends, becomes itself an appetite and passion, and the vicious habit of avarice is formed. And so, in our upward progress, the honesty which was at first practiced only because it was the best policy, the worship of God which was first paid only as the price of heaven, becomes at last the unbought and unselfish homage of the soul to uprightness, holiness and truth." - Bowen, Metaphysics and Ethics, p. 308.

Dr. Gregory in speaking of the law of habit says, "This beneficent arrangement furnishes one of the greatest encouragements to parents and instructors of the young. By firmly and prudently holding the young to prescribed tasks and courses of conduct, which may at first be irksome, hut which are necessary and right, the proper habits are formed; and what is done at first unwillingly and only from the pressure of a superior will, comes to be done gladly and for its own sake." - Gregory, Christian Ethics, p. 203.]

result in a balanced, harmonious and well-integrated personality. For this the psalmist prayed when he said, Teach me thy way, 0 Lord; I will walk in thy truth: unite my heart to fear thy name (Psalms 86:11). The world not only has an aspect which we call the true, but also that which we call the beautiful. (Cf. Christian Theology, I, pp. 307, 308.) God reveals Himself through the latter as well as the former. Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary, and we are commanded to worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness (Psalms 96:6, 9). The beautiful and the sublime, whether in nature or the works of art, are designed of God to elevate and ennoble the soul. Insensibility, therefore, to the beautiful is indicative of incomplete manhood, and it is the Christian's duty to avoid any repression or perversion in the development of his aesthetic nature. Instead, he is to cultivate a taste which is quick to discern beauty, correct in the judgment of it, and catholic in the sense of recognizing and appreciating beauty wherever found.

 The Development of the Spiritual Life. The Scriptures abound with commands, instructions, injunctions

[One's religious views may be held at second hand, that is, in a philosophical or aesthetic way. And just because religious perception deals with an objective element, that of thought and fancy, it may be sundered from its vital source in the affections, and be exercised in a merely aesthetic or philosophic way, independent of personal faith. Thus there are philosophers, poets, painters, and sculptors, who have represented Christian ideas with great plastic power, yet without themselves having a religious possession of those ideas; being brought into relation to them only through the medium of thought and fancy. Thus, too, a large proportion of men of the present time hold religious views only in an aesthetic way, or merely make them the subject of refined reflection; hold them only at second hand, because they know nothing of the personal feelings and the determinations of conscience which correspond to them; because, in other words, their religious knowledge does not spring from their standing in right religious relations. The adoption of religious notions, nay, even of a comprehensive religious view of life, is, therefore, by no means an infallible proof that a man is himself religious. The latter is the case only when the religious views are rooted in a corresponding inward state of the mind and heart; when the man feels himself in conscience bound to these views; in short, when he believes them. And even though a man, with the help of Christian views could achieve wonders in art and science, could prophesy, and cast out devils, yet Christ will not acknowledge him unless he himself stands in right personal relations to these views. It is especially necessary at the present time to call attention to this double manner in which religious notions may be entertained. - MARTESEN, Christian Dogmatics, p. 10.]

and exhortations concerning the development of the spiritual life. Three aspects of this development may be presented. (1) St. Peter closes his second epistle with the words, But grow in grace, and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ (II Peter 3:18); and he marks out the stages of this progress as follows: Giving all diligence, add to your faith virtue; and to virtue knowledge; and to knowledge temperance; and to temperance patience; and to patience godliness; and to godliness brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness charity. For if these things be in you, and abound, they make you that ye shall neither be barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ (II Peter 1:5-8). Here the apostle makes all the Christian virtues to root in faith, and to find their perfect fruitage in charity or divine love. (2) St. James represents the Chokmah or Wisdom Literature of the New Testament and, therefore, makes spiritual development to spring from the wisdom of the Word. As the doxa or glory of God represents His nature and attributes as belonging to Himself, and yet in thought distinguishable from Himself; so the chokmah or wisdom of God, while 

[Rev. J. A. Wood in his work entitled "Perfect Love" cites the following as evidences of advancement in holiness: (1) An increasing comfort and delight in the holy Scriptures. (2) An increasing interest In prayer, and an increasing spirit of prayer. (3) An increasing desire for the holiness of others. (4) A more heart-searching sense of the value of time. (5) Less desire to hear, see, and know for mere curiosity. (6) A growing inclination against magnifying the faults and weaknesses of others, when obliged to speak of their characters. (7) A greater readiness to speak freely to those who do not enjoy religion, and to backward professors of religion. (8) More disposition to glory in reproach for Christ's sake, and suffer, if need be, for Him. (9) An increasing tenderness of conscience, and being more scrupulously conscientious. (10) Less affected by changes of place and circumstances. (11) A sweeter enjoyment of the holy Sabbath, and the services of the sanctuary. (12) An increasing love for the searching means of grace. - WOOD, Perfect Love, pp. 311, 312.

Mr. Wesley mentions the following as hindering growth in holiness, in that they "grieve the Holy Spirit of God." (1) By such conversation as is not profitable, not to the use of edifying, not apt to minister grace to the hearers. (2) By relapsing into bitterness or want of kindness. (3) By wrath, lasting displeasure, or want of tender-hearted ness. (4) By anger, however soon it is over; want of instantly forgiving one another. (5) By clamor or brawling, loud, harsh, rough speaking. (6) By evil speaking, whispering, talebearing; needlessly mentioning the fault of an absent person, though in ever so soft a manner - Wesley, Plain Account of Christian Perfection. p. 80.]

distinguishable in thought from the nature of man, is yet such an impartation of the divine nature as works in him, holiness of heart and life. Hence we read that the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, and easy to be intreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypocrisy (James 3:17). This wisdom is received through faith, and herein is the connection between the thought of St. James and that of St. Peter; it is administered by the Spirit, and this leads us to the position of St. Paul. (3) In the thought of St. Paul, the development of the spiritual life is accomplished through co-operation with the Spirit of God. This I say then, Walk in the Spirit, and ye shall not fulfil the lust of the flesh. . . .But if ye be led of the Spirit, ye are not under the law (Gal. 5:16, 18). It is through the indwelling presence of the holiness, but is led into the deeper unfolding of grace and Spirit, therefore, that the soul is not only preserved in truth. It is for this reason the apostle prays that we may be able to comprehend with all saints what is the breadth, and length, and depth, and height; and to know the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge, that ye might be filled with all the fullness of God (Eph. 3:18,19). 

The literature of devotion which makes the greatest and most direct contribution to the spiritual life has been built up from the rich spiritual experiences of the saints in all ages. The Scriptures are, of course, the only inspired and authoritative literature on this subject; and even within the Scriptures themselves, the Psalms are usually regarded as belonging specifically to the devotional field. Here is a record of God's dealings with the souls of men, given to the church as an inspired language, by means of which, men have been enabled to voice the deepest emotions and highest aspirations of their souls. But as belonging properly to the field of devotion, we may note also, the spiritual flights of the ancient prophets, the gracious words which fell from the lips of our Lord himself, and the inspired utterances of His holy apostles - all of these enable the souls of men to enter more deeply into communion with their Lord through the Spirit. Outside the Scriptures, also, there has been built up a wide field of devotional literature, likewise born from the deep and rich experiences of men who have entered deeply into the knowledge of God. So important is this field that we give below a few of the more commonly known and accepted works in the devotional field.

Among the devotional writers, whose works have been generally accepted throughout the church, may be mentioned the following: Thomas á Kempis, The Imitation of Christ; Theologica Germanica, first discovered and published by Martin Luther; Francis de Sales, Defence of the Standard of the Cross, and An Introduction to the Devout Life. Among the Quietists we may mention, Molinos, Spiritual Guide; Madame Guyon, Method of Prayer; and Fenelon, Maxims of the Saints. Other writings more strictly Protestant are Bunyan, Grace Abounding, and Pilgrim's Progress; Bishop Andrewes, Private Devotions; Bishop Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living (1650) and Holy Dying (1651); Samuel Rutherford, Letters. Among the Friends are the writings of George Fox, Robert Barclay, William Penn and John Woolman. Following these we have William Law, the non-jurist, whose Christian Perfection (1726) was abridged by John Wesley (1740); also his Serious Call (1729); The Spirit of Prayer (1750) and The Spirit of Love (1754). Among the Methodists we have Wesley, Journal; Sermons; and especially his Plain Account of Christian Perfection. We may mention, also, as of exceptional devotional value, The Journal of Hester Ann Rogers; the Life of William Bramwell; Memoirs of Carvosso, and Fletcher's Appeal. Nothing is more conducive to the devotional life than the prayerful perusal of the writings of such eminently pious men as those mentioned above. Because of their peculiar value, we give in the following notes, the Spiritual Reflections of Mr. Wesley, and the Religious Maxims of Dr. Thomas C. Upham. The serious and prayerful perusal of these will prove of great value to the spiritual life.

[SPIRITUAL REFLECTIONS

Mr. Wesley in his "Plain Account of Christian Perfection," gives us the following spiritual reflections, which he recommends for deep and frequent consideration. The full text will be found on pp. 95ff in the work mentioned above.

(1) The sea is an excellent figure of the fullness of God, and that of the blessed Spirit. For as the rivers all return into the sea; so the bodies, the souls, and the good works of the righteous, return into God, to live there in His eternal repose.

The bottom of the soul may be in repose, even while we are in outward troubles; just as the bottom of the sea is calm, while the surface is strongly agitated. The best helps to growth in grace are the ill-usage, the affronts, and the losses which befall us. We should receive them with all thankfulness, as preferable to all others will has no part therein. The readiest way to escape from our sufferings is to be willing they should endure as long as God pleases. One of the greatest evidences of God's love to those that love Him to send them afflictions, with grace to bear them.

(2) True resignation consists in a thorough conformity to the whole will of God, who wills and does all (excepting sin) which comes to pass in the world. In order to this we have only to embrace all events, good and bad, as His will.

We ought quietly to suffer whatever befalls us, to bear the defects of others and our own, to confess them to God in secret prayer, or with groans which cannot be uttered; but never to speak a sharp or peevish word, nor to murmur or repine hut thoroughly willing that God should treat you in the manner that pleases Him.

We are to hear with those we cannot amend, and to be content with offering them to God. This is true resignation. And since He has borne our infirmities, we may well bear those of each other for His sake.

(3) There is no love of God without patience, and no patience without lowliness and sweetness of spirit. Humility and patience are the surest proofs of the increase of love. True humility is a kind of self-annihilation, and this is the center of all virtues.

(4) The hearing men, and suffering evils in meekness and silence, is the sum of a Christian life.

God is the first object of our love: its next office is to bear the defects of others. And we should begin the practice of this amidst our own household. We should chiefly exercise our love toward them who most shock either our way of thinking, or our temper, or our knowledge, or the desire we have that others should be as virtuous as we wish ourselves to be.

(5) God hardly gives His Spirit even to those whom He has established in grace, if they do not pray for it on all occasions, not only once, but many times. On every occasion of uneasiness, we should retire to prayer, that we may give place to the grace and light of God, and then form our resolutions, without being in any pain about what success they may have.

In the greatest temptations, a single look to Christ, and the barely pronouncing His name, suffices to overcome the wicked one, so it be done with confidence and calmness of spirit. All that a Christian does, even In eating and sleeping, is prayer, when it is done in simplicity, according to the order of God, without either adding to or diminishing from it by his own choice.

Prayer continues in the desire of the heart, though the understanding be employed on outward things.

In souls filled with love, the desire to please God is a continual prayer.

(6) It is scarcely conceivable how straight the way is wherein God leads them that follow Him; and how dependent on Him we must be, unless we are wanting in our faithfulness to Him.

We ought to be in the church as the saints are in heaven, and in the house as the holiest men are in the church; doing our work In the house as we pray in the church; worshiping God from the ground of the heart.

We should he continually laboring to cut off all the useless things that surround us: and God usually retrenches the superfluities of our souls In the same proportion as we do those of our bodies.

We scarce conceive how easy it is to rob God of His due, in our friendship with the most virtuous persons, until they are torn from us by death. But if this loss produce lasting sorrow that is a clear proof that we had before two treasures, between which we divided our heart.

(7) If after having renounced all, we do not watch incessantly, and beseech God to accompany our vigilance with His, we shall again be entangled and overcome.

It is good to renew ourselves from time to time, by closely examining the state of our souls, as if we had never done it before; for nothing tends more to the full assurance of faith, than to keep ourselves by this means in humility, and the exercise of all good works.

To continual watchfulness and prayer ought to be added continual employment. For grace fills a vacuum as well as nature; and the devil fills whatever God does not fill.

(8) One of the principal rules of religion is, to lose no occasion of serving God. And since He is invisible to our eyes, we are to serve Him in our neighbor; which He receives as if done to Himself in person, standing visibly before us.

A constant attention to the work which God entrusts us with is a mark of solid piety.

Charity cannot be practiced right, unless, first, we exercise it the moment God gives the occasion; and second, retire the instant after to offer it to God by humble thanksgiving. - John Wesley, Plain Account of Christian Perfection, pp.95-102.

 

RELIGIOUS MAXIMS

The following have been selected from the "Religious Maxims" of Dr. Thomas C. Upham found in his work entitled, "Principles of the Interior Life." Their perusal and observance will contribute much to the devotional life of those who seek a closer fellowship with God.

I.

Think much, and pray much, and let your words be few, and Uttered with seriousness and deliberation, as in God's presence. And yet regard may be had to times and seasons. We may innocently act the child with children, which in the presence of grown persons would have the appearance of thoughtlessness and levity; and may perhaps at times express our gratitude to God, and our holy joys, with an increased degree of freedom and vivacity, especially in the company of those who bear the same image, and who know what it is to rejoice in the Holy Ghost.

II.

Be silent when blamed and reproached unjustly, and under such circumstances that the reproachful and injurious person will be likely, from the influence of his own reflections, to discover his error and wrong speedily. Listen not to the suggestions of nature, which would prompt a hasty reply; but receive the injurious treatment with humility and calmness; and He in whose name you thus suffer will reward you with inward consolation, while he sends the sharp arrow of conviction into the heart of your adversary.

III.

In whatever you are called upon to do, endeavor to maintain a calm, collected and prayerful state of mind. Self-recollection is of great importance. "It is good for a man to wait quietly for the salvation of the Lord." He who is in what may be called a spiritual hurry, or rather who runs without having evidence of being spiritually sent, makes haste to no purpose.

IV.

Seek holiness rather than consolation. Not that consolation is to be despised, or thought lightly of; but solid and permanent consolation is the result rather than the forerunner of holiness, therefore he who seeks consolation as a distinct and independent object will miss it Seek and possess holiness, and consolation (not perhaps, often in the form of ecstatic and rapturous joys, but rather of solid and delightful peace) will follow as assuredly as warmth follows the dispensation of the rays of the sun. He who is holy must be happy.

V.

"Be not disturbed because the eye of the world is constantly and earnestly fixed upon you, to detect your errors and to rejoice in your halting. But rather regard this state of things, trying as it may be, as one of the safeguards which a kind Father has placed around you, to keep alive in your own bosom an antagonistic spirit of watchfulness, and to prevent those very mistakes and transgressions which your enemies eagerly anticipate.

VI.

Do not think it strange when troubles and persecutions come upon you. Rather receive them quietly and thankfully, as coming from a Father's hand. Yea, happy are ye, if, in the exercise of faith, you can look above the earthly instrumentality, above the selfishness and malice of men, to Him who has permitted them for your good. Thus persecuted they the Saviour and the prophets.

VII. .

"Be ye angry and sin not." The life of our Saviour, as well as the precepts of the apostles, clearly teaches us that there may be occasions - on which we may have feelings of displeasure, and even of anger, without sin. Sin does not necessarily attach to anger, considered in its nature, but in its degree. Nevertheless, anger seldom exists in fact, without becoming in its measure inordinate and excessive. Hence it is important to watch against it, lest we be led into transgression. Make it a rule, therefore, never to give any outward expressions to angry-feelings (a course which will operate as a powerful check upon their excessive action), until you have made them the subject of reflection and prayer. And thus you may hope to be kept.

VIII.

In the agitations of the present life, beset and perplexed as we are with troubles, how natural it is to seek earnestly some place of rest And hence it is that we so often reveal our cares and perplexities to our fellowmen, and seek comfort and support from that source. But the sanctified soul, having experienced the uncertainties of all human aids, turns instinctively to the great God; and hiding itself in the presence and protection of the divine existence, it reposes there, as in a strong tower which no enemies can conquer, and as on an everlasting rock which no flood can wash away. It knows the instructive import of that sublime exclamation of the psalmist, 'My soUl, wait thou only upon God; for my expectation is from him" (Psalms 62:5).

IX.

Speak not often of your own actions, nor even, when it can be properly avoided, make allusions to yourself, as an agent in transactions which are calculated to attract notice. we do not suppose, as some may be inclined to do, that frequent speaking of our actions is necessarily a proof, although it may furnish a presumption of inordinate self love or vanity; but it cannot be denied that by such a course we expose ourselves to temptations and dangers in that direction. It is much safer, and is certainly much more profitable, to speak of what has been done for us and wrought in us - to speak, for instance, of ourselves s the recipients of the goodness of God - than to speak of what we ourselves have done. But even here, also, although it may often be an imperative duty, there is need of deliberation and caution.

X.

The divine life, which in every stage of its existence depends upon the presence of the Spirit of God, places a high estimate on mental tranquility. It is no new thing to remark that the Holy Spirit has no congeniality with and no pleasure in the soul where strife and clamor have taken possession. If, therefore, we would have the Holy Spirit with us always, we must avoid and flee, with all the intensity of our being, all inordinate coveting, all envying, malice and evil speaking, all impatience, jealousy and anger. Of such a heart, and such only, which is calm as well as pure, partaking something of the self-collected and sublime tranquillity of the Divine Mind, can it he said, in the truest and highest sense, that it is a temple fitted for the indwelling of the Holy Ghost.

 

THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

The Ten Commandments of the Old Testament as re-enacted in the New Testament have been tabulated by Rev. R. Crittenden as follows:

1. And Jesus answered him, The first of all the commandments is, Hear, 0 Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord (Mark 12:29).

II. For they themselves shew of us what manner of entering in we had unto you, and how ye turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God (I Thess. 1:9).

III. But I say unto you, Swear not at all (Matt. 5:34).

IV. And he said unto them, The sabbath was made for man, and not man for the sabbath (Mark 2:27).

V. Honour thy father and thy mother (Matt. 19:19).

VI. Thou shalt do no murder (Matt. 19:18).

VII. Thou shalt not commit adultery (Matt. 19:18).

VIII. Thou shalt not steal (Matt. 19:18).

IX. Thou shalt not bear false witness (Matt. 19:18).

X. And he said unto them, Take heed, and beware of covetousness (Luke 12:15).

 

(III) SOCIAL ETHICS: OR THE DUTIES WE OWE TO OTHERS

As Christ summed up the first table of the law in one broad and comprehensive duty of love to God, so also, He did likewise with the second table in an equally comprehensive duty of love to man. To set the matter in proper relation to that which precedes it, we shall repeat the entire text. Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets (Matt. 22:37-40). The First of the two Commandments has already been considered, and the second now demands our attention. We may be allowed also, to again call attention to the fact that in the Christian system, the love which forms the basis of duty to others, is not merely the affection of the natural heart alone, but that love which is shed abroad in the heart by the Holy Spirit, and which is perfected only as the heart is purified from sin. It is not pretended, however, that we are bound to love all men alike, irrespective of their character, or regardless of the relation which we sustain to them. This love, therefore, needs careful analysis. (1) We are required to love all men with the love of good will. We can wish no ill to any man, and must use all reasonable effort to promote the feeling of good will toward all our fellow creatures. (2) We are to love the unfortunate and distressed with the love of pity. This duty is enforced by our Lord in His description of the judgment (Matt. 25:35-46); and specifically by St. Paul in the text: Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink: for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head (Rom. 12:20). (3) We are to love good people with the love of complacency. This in its highest sense is Christian love, and can be felt toward none except such as are true Christians. We shall not transcend the teachings of Christ if we say that Christians are under obligations to each other, which do not bind them to other men. This obligation has its source in the "new Commandment" which Christ gave to His disciples. A new commandment I give unto you, That ye love one another: as I have loved you, that ye also love one another (John 13:34). By this shall all men know that ye are my disciples (John 13:35). The Commandment, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself is found in the Old Testament (Lev. 19:18); but this is to be distinguished from the new Commandment, in that the former was based on the love of benevolence, the latter on the love of complacency. The old Commandment required love to man as man; the new Commandment requires the love of character, or the love of a Christian as a Christian. Further still, the old Commandment was based upon the love of man for man as a creature of God; the love of the new Commandment is based upon the example of Jesus Christ as the Redeemer. The application of the law of love is stated in the Golden Rule. Here again Christ is His own best interpreter. He says, All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets (Matt. 7 12). The law of equal love therefore requires that a man treat every other as he himself would like to be treated in the same circumstances.

Violations of Brotherly Love. In this connection, St. Paul gives attention to those emotions, passions and practices which violate both in spirit and in conduct, the universal law of love. He mentions the following:

1. First of all, he calls attention to anger, which is a strong emotion of displeasure, excited either by a real or supposed injury; wrath, or deep and violent anger; and hatred - a strong aversion or abhorrence, coupled with ill will. These emotions or passions may or may not be expressed. They are not necessarily wrong in

[This law of equal love to men is to be interpreted in consistency with all our manifest personal and domestic duties. Any other interpretation of it is wrong. In this view the subject is plain. Are you a husband? treat your wife a you would like to be treated if you were a wife. Are you a wife? treat your husband as you would like to be treated if you were a husband. Are you a parent? treat your child as you would like to be treated were you a child. Are you a child? treat your parents as you would like to be treated were you a parent. Are you a brother or sister? treat your brother or sister as you would like to have them treat you under like circumstances. Are you a ruler? treat your subjects as you would like to be treated were you in their place and they in yours. Are you a fellow citizen? treat your fellow citizens as you would like to have them treat you. Does a stranger cross your path? treat him as you would like to be treated were you a stranger. Do you find a fellow being in distress? treat him just as you would like to he treated were you in distress. In all this, the thing supposed is what you would require of your fellow being in perfect honesty. - Lee, Elements of Theology p. 381.]

themselves, but become so when they violate the law of love. Thus it is written that God is angry with the wicked every day (Psalms 7 11); and again, The fear of the Lord is to hate evil (Prov. 8:13). Christ looked round about on them with anger, being grieved for the hardness of their hearts (Mark 3:5). St. John speaks also of the wrath of the Lamb, and of the great day of his wrath (Rev. 6:16, 17). It is clear, therefore, that these emotions become evil, only as they are so misdirected and uncontrolled as to contravene the law of love. For this reason, when they are mentioned in the .Scriptures it is generally in connection with other and more malevolent passions. Thus St. Paul says, Let all bitterness, and wrath, and anger, and clamour be put away from you with all malice (Eph. 4:31). Here anger .and wrath are associated with bitterness and clamor. St. John tells us that whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer (I John 3:15); and our Lord himself declares that whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment (Matt. 5:22).

2. Closely associated with the foregoing are malice (a malignant design of evil) ; variance (quarrels) ; emulations (jealousies) ; wrath (resentments) ; and strife (brawlings or altercations) . These when brought into relation with civil government lead to sedition, which .may be defined as conduct tending toward treason, but without the overt act; that is, discontent with, or resistance to, properly constituted government. In their application to the Church, they give rise to heresies or sects. The term signifies opinion as opposed to authorized doctrinal standards, especially when used to promote schism or divisions. Hence St. Paul says, A man that is an heretick after the first and second admonition

[Holy wrath in human personality is an expression of the soul in .its attitude toward wrong or supposed wrong. while it is somewhat mixed with various other emotions and may be faulty in the holiest of men because of its finite relationships, yet it is still a semblance to the infinite wrath of God in respect to its orderly procedure and control. As divine wrath or anger is majestic in its harmony with truth, and its expression is sanctioned by the entirety of every divine attribute, so also, holy anger in sanctified personality is a principle of life and expression which does not unbalance reason nor bring the various parts of selfhood into confusion. - PAUL S. HILL.]

reject; knowing that he that is such is subverted, and sinneth, being condemned of himself (Titus 3:10, 11).

3. Growing out of the preceding, but with a more objective emphasis, are those violations of brotherly love which are occasioned by a lack of strict adherence to truth in conversation. Here may be mentioned: (1) All censoriousness and evil speaking. St. Paul commands that all evil speaking, be put away (Eph. 4:31); and St. James exhorts the brethren to Speak not evil one of another (James 4:11). Dr. Wakefield says of evil speaking, "It consists in relating that which is

[Mr. Watson gives us an excellent statement of the law of love, as follows: "It excludes all anger, beyond that degree of resentment a culpable action in another may call forth, in order to mark the sense we entertain of its evil, and to impress that evil upon the offender, so that we may lead him to repent of it, and forsake it. This seems the proper rule by which to distinguish lawful anger from that which is contrary to charity, and therefore malevolent and sinful. It excludes implacability; for if we do not promptly and generously forgive others their trespasses, this is deemed to be so great a violation of that law of love which ought to bind men together, that our heavenly Father will not forgive us. It excludes all revenge; so that we are to exact no punishment of another for offenses against ourselves; and though it be lawful to call in the penalties of the law for crimes against society, yet this is never to be done on the principle of private revenge; but on the public ground that law and government are ordained of God, which produces a case that comes under the inspired rule, 'Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord.' It excludes all prejudice; by which is meant a harsh construction of men's motives and characters upon surmise, or partial knowledge of the facts, accompanied with an inclination to form an ill opinion of them in the absence of proper evidence. This appears to he what the Apostle Paul means when he says, 'Charity thinketh no evil.' It excludes all censoriousness or evil speaking, when the end is not for the correction of the offender, or when a declaration of the truth is not required by our love and duty to another; for whenever the end is merely to lower a person in the estimation of others, it is resolvable solely into a splenetic and immoral feeling. It excludes all those aggressions, whether petty or more weighty, which may be made upon the interests of another, when the law of the case, or even the abstract right, might not be against our claim. These are always complex cases, and can but occasionally occur; but the e which binds us to do unto others as we would they should do unto us, binds us to act upon the benevolent view of the case, and to forego the rigidness of right. Finally, it excludes, as limitations to its exercises, all those artificial distinctions which have been created by men, or by providential arrangements, or by accidental circumstances. Men of all nations, of all colors, of all conditions, are the objects of the unlimited precept, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.' Kind feelings produced by natural instincts, by intercourse, by country, may call the love of our neighbor into warmer exercise as to individuals or classes of men, or these may be considered as distinct and special, though similar affections superadded to this universal charity; but as to all men, this charity is an efficient affection, excluding all will and all injury" (Watson, Institutes).]

improper or wrong in an absent person when duty or truth does not require it. For, whenever the end is merely to lower a person in the estimation of others, it is resolvable into a splenetic and immoral feeling" (WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, p. 517) . (2) All corrupt communications. Let no corrupt communication proceed out of .your mouth, but that which is good to the use of edifying, that it may minister grace unto the hearers (Eph. 4:29). This is not limited to obscenity only, but to all forms of corrupting speech - words tinged with envy or .jealousy; tones which indicate anger or impatience; and everything which is either corrupt in form or unholy in .spirit. (3) Lying and deceptiveness. Deceptiveness may .be regarded as the root of the depraved nature, and lying as its corrupt expression. Hence St. Paul says, Lie not one to another, seeing that ye have put off the old man with his deeds (Col. 3:9). Lying strikes at the very foundation of the social structure, sets man against man, and nation against nation. It destroys the only foundation for confidence and faith, and for this reason St. John passes severe judgment upon all who indulge in it. He says, All liars shall have their part in the lake that burneth with fire and brimstone (Rev. 21:8); and again, in speaking of the holy city, There shall in no wise enter into it anything that defileth, neither whatsoever worketh abomination, or maketh a lie (Rev. 21:27).

4. Revenge is prohibited by express command. While it is lawful and right that offenders against society should be punished by properly constituted authority, private revenge is not permissible. The divine injunction is, Recompense to no man evil for evil (Rom. 12:17); and Avenge not yourself, but rather give place unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord (Rom. 12:19). An implacable or unforgiving spirit is also a great violation of the law of love. If ye forgive not men their trespasses, says our Lord, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses (Matt. 6:15).

But brotherly love not only has its prohibitions, it has its positive assertions as well. Consequently, it maintains that true brotherliness must have due regard to the rights and privileges of others. These are generally summed up as the right to (1) life, (2) liberty and (3) property.

1. Man has the right to live. This not only refers to actual bodily existence, which we have already discussed in our treatment of the sanctity of the body; but all that it means as our Lord interpreted it when He said, I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly (John. 10:10). Human culture not only includes the enjoyment of physical values, but also the apprehension of the true and the appreciation of the beautiful. Hence society is under obligation to provide the individual with the opportunity to secure proper food, clothing and shelter; and also the opportunity for the cultural advantages of intellectual and spiritual development. "The underlying principle postulated in all these cases is the doctrine of equality, equality of rights, not equality of condition. That is to say, every man has the same right to use the means of happiness providentially within his reach as any other man has to use the means of happiness providentially within his reach. These rights have respect to life, liberty and reputation" (RAYMOND, Systematic Theology, III, p.150).

2. Man has a right to personal liberty. As generally received, this liberty consists in freedom from compulsion or restraint, and applies to both body and mind. "Liberty of person," says Dr. Wakefield, "consists in exemption from the arbitrary will of our fellowmen, or in the privilege of doing as we please, so as not to trespass on the rights of others. This kind of liberty belongs to men in a social state, and can be maintained only by established laws. Hence, liberty of person, as it recognizes the rights of every member of society, and depends upon the restraints of law, is evidently included in what we call civil liberty" (WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, p. 521). Civil liberty includes also the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press and the freedom of assembly; and to this must be added, religious freedom, or freedom to worship God according to the dictates of one's conscience.

3. Man also has a right to private property. The right of private property is of inestimable value, and any violation of it is to be justly condemned. It is secured to men by the divine commandment, "Thou shalt not steal" (Exodus 20:15). In the New Testament the Commandment "Thou shalt not covet" (Exodus 20:17) is carried up into the principle of justice in the heart, from which corrupt affection arises every injury done to the property of men. St. Paul expressly declares also,

[Liberty of person must be distinguished from what is sometimes called natural liberty. This is supposed to consist in a freedom to do in all things as we please, without any regard to the interests of our fellowmen. To such liberty, however, we have no just right, either natural or acquired. The liberty to rob and to plunder may be the natural right of the wolf or tiger; but if mankind are by nature fitted and designed for the social state, which will hardly be denied, it cannot be the natural right of men. when, therefore, we speak of liberty as a natural right, we mean that kind of liberty which is in accordance with the rights of all men. 

Liberty of speech and of the press is the right of every citizen "freely to speak, write, and publish his sentiments" on all suitable subjects. The word "press" is here employed in its most comprehensive sense, denoting the general business of printing and publishing. Hence the liberty of the press is the liberty to publish books and papers with out restraint, except such as may be necessary to guard the rights of others. Men are not at liberty in all cases to speak or publish against others what they please. Without some restraint they might, by false reports or malicious publications, injure the reputation, the peace, or the property of their fellowmen. It is therefore proper, while the civil authorities guarantee to every man freedom of speech and of the press, that it should hold him responsible for the abuse of this right. For a person to defame another by a false or malicious statement or report is either slander or libel. When the offense consists in words spoken, it is slander; when in words written or printed, it is called libel. The latter, because it is generally more widely circulated than the former, - and is, therefore, likely to do greater injury, is supposed to be the greater offense.

Liberty of conscience, or religious liberty, consists in the unrestrained privilege of adopting and maintaining whatever religious opinions our judgment may approve, and of worshiping God according to the dictates of our conscience.

Thus we have seen that the proper administration of justice will secure to us the three great natural rights of man - life, property and liberty. But these rights may be forfeited by crime. If a man commits murder he forfeits his life, and lawfully suffers death. If he is guilty of rebellion, his . estate may be seized and confiscated. If he steals, he loses his right to liberty, and is justly imprisoned. How far the natural rights of every man may be restrained by public authoritv is a point, however, on which different opinions have been held - WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, pp. 521-523.]

That no man go beyond and defraud his brother in any matter: because that the Lord is the avenger of all such, as we also have forewarned you and testified (I Thess. 4:6). Theft consists in taking property without the knowledge or consent of the owner. Robbery is taking property from its lawful possessor by violence; and fraud is the injury of our neighbor through deception. These common forms of dishonesty are all violations of justice, and are forbidden by the Eighth Commandment.

In addition to the rights of life, liberty and property involved in ethical justice, Christianity requires also

[The right of property is of incalculable value to human beings. It enables them to secure happiness in a great measure proportionable to their skill, economy, and moral virtues. It multiplies objects of enjoyment, and lays a foundation for voluntary industry and enterprise. It is one of the main pillars of civilization. It leads to the perfection of all those arts and sciences which are connected with civilized life, and is the basis of all mechanical, mercantile and manufacturing pursuits. The protection of men by the state in the enjoyment of the rights of property is only second, therefore, to their protection in the enjoyment of personal rights and liberties. - WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, p. 520.

The right to property may be acquired: (1) directly by the gift of God. A man who enters unappropriated lands and continues to occupy and improve the same, acquires thereby a right to said lands that is exclusive of all 

others, which right he may transfer by gift or sale. If he leave without a transfer of his right, the lands then become unappropriated, and may be entered upon by others; but while he or his successors remain in actual possession they may not be disturbed. (2) The right of property may be acquired directly by labor. whatever is the product of one's own labor is his to the exclusion of all others. when products are the resultants of combined labor each party is evidently entitled to only that part of the product which his own labor has produced. Capital is the result of past labor; when, therefore, the laborer uses the capital of another, he and the capitalist must share the product in just proportion to the labor each has bestowed. In the arrangements of civilized society the just distribution of products among laborers and capitalists has been, in all ages, and is still, a question of great difficulty. We have not the assurance to attempt the solution of a problem which the philosophers and statesmen of the ages have failed to solve. (3) The right of property may be acquired by exchange, by gift, by will, by inheritance, by accession and by possession. when one delivers property to another for a consideration, it is called exchange; if he receive other commodities, it is barter; if money, sale; when he disposes of his property without a consideration, it is a gift; when he directs as to the disposition of his property after death, his heirs are said to acquire their right by will. If a man die without a will, being possessed of property, the government divides his estate, as it supposes he would have done had he made a will. whatever value one's property produces is his - this is called property acquired by accession. If a man have peaceable possession of property for a term of years, this peaceable possession entails upon others the moral obligation to leave him undisturbed (cf. RAYMOND, Systematic Theology, III, pp. 134-137).]

the exercise of benevolence toward all men. "Benevolence is not merely a negative affection, but brings forth rich and varied fruits. It produces a feeling of delight in the happiness of others, and thus destroys envy; it is the source of sympathy and compassion; it opens its hand in liberality to supply the wants of the needy; it gives cheerfulness to every service undertaken in the cause of our fellowmen; it resists the wrong which may be inflicted upon them, and it will run hazards of health and life for their sake. Benevolence has special respect to the spiritual interests and salvation of men. It instructs, persuades and reproves the ignorant and vicious; it counsels the simple; it comforts the doubting and perplexed; and it rejoices in those gifts and graces of others by which society may be enlightened and purified" (WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, pp. 523, 524). It will

[In addition to the above statement, Dr. Wakefield points out (1) that true Christian benevolence is disinterested. "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." We do not say that it implies an absence of all reference to our own good. A total disregard of our own gratification is obviously impossible; for such a state of feeling would contradict the most active and efficient principles of human nature. But though, strictly and philosophically speaking, benevolence may not divest us of all reference to our own interests, yet it implies those feelings which 

render our happiness dependent on promoting the happiness of others. To be kind to men simply because they are kind to us, or to alleviate their wants merely because it contributes to our own interest, is not benevolence, but selfishness. (Cf. Luke 6:32, 33.) (2) True benevolence is unrestricted in its objects. Disdaining the dictates of a narrow and calculating policy, it inclines us, to the utmost of our ability, to promote the happiness of others Unrestricted by the ties of consanguinity, the habits of association, circumstances of locality, or natural sympathy, Christian charity extends its benignant wishes to our entire race. Dissolving the fetters of sectarian bigotry, overleaping the boundaries of political proscription, and renouncing the system of a selfish reciprocity, its aspirations are bounded only by the residence of man. (3) Benevolence is self-sacrificing and laborious. The zeal of apostles, the patience of martyrs, the travels and labors of evangelists in the first ages, were all animated by this affection; and the earnestness of Gospel ministers in all ages, and the labors of private Christians for the benefit of the souls of men, with the operations of those voluntary associations which send forth missionaries to the heathen, or distribute Bibles and tracts, or conduct schools, are all its visible expression before the world. (4) True benevolence manifests itself in acts of practical mercy and liberality, to the needy and the miserable. This fruit of benevolence is more particularly denominated charity, the field for the exercise of which is very extensive The entire neglect to exercise this practical benevolence is highly inconsistent with the character of a good man. "Whoso hath this world's good, and seeth his brother have need, and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from him how dwelleth the love of God in him?" (I John 3:17). (Cf. WAKEFIELD, Christian Theology, pp.523-526.)]

be seen that the duties of benevolence differ greatly from those of simple reciprocity. (1) Benevolent services are outside the range of obligation, and therefore our fellowmen may neither demand them of us, nor censure us if we do not render them. Here the duty and responsibility are purely to God and not to them. (2) Benevolence demands upon the part of the recipient an obligation of gratitude toward the donor. This is not true in the case of reciprocity. No gratitude is due for the payment of an honest debt. (3) The duties required by reciprocity may be enforced by civil authority, but the

[WATSON ON PROPERTY RIGHTS

Property is not disposable at the option of man, without respect to the rules of the divine law; and here, too, we shall perceive the feebleness of the considerations urged, in merely moral systems, to restrain prodigal and wasteful expenditure, hazardous speculations, and even the obvious evil of gambling. Many weighty arguments, we grant, may be drawn against all these from the claims of children and near relations, whose interests we are bound to regard, and whom we can have no right to expose even to the chance of being involved in the same ruin with ourselves. But these reasons can have little sway with those who fancy that they can keep within the verge of extreme danger, and who will plead their "natural right" to do what they will with their own. In cases, too, where there may be no children or dependent relatives, the individual would feel less disposed to acknowledge the forces of this class of reasons, or think them quite inapplicable to his case. But Christianity enjoins "moderation" of the desires, and temperance in the gratification of the appetites, and in the show and splendor of life, even where a state of opulence can command them. It has its admonitions against the "love of money ; against "willing to be rich," except as "the Lord may prosper a man" in the usual track and course of honest industry - authoritative cautions which lie directly against hazardous speculations; and it warns such as despise them of the consequent "temptations" and "spiritual snares" destructive to the habits of piety, and ultimately to the soul, into which they must fall - considerations of vast moment, but peculiar to itself, and quite out of the range of those moral systems which have no respect to its authority. Against gambling, in its most innocent forms, it sets its injunction, "Redeeming the time"; and in its most aggravated cases, it opposes to it not only the above considerations, as it springs from an unhallowed "love of money"; but the whole of that spirit and temper which it makes to be obligatory upon us, and which those evil and often diabolical excitements, produced by this habit, so fearfully violate. Above all, it makes property a trust, to be employed under the rules prescribed by Him, who as Sovereign Proprietor, has deposited it with us, which rules require its use certainly (for the covetous are excluded from the kingdom of God); but its use, first for the supply of our wants, according to our station, with moderation; then, as a provision for children, and dependent relatives; finally, for purposes of charity and religion, in which grace," as before stated, it requires us "to abound"; and it enforces all these by placing us under the responsibility of accounting to God Himself, in person, for the abuse or neglect of this trust, at the general judgment (Cf. Lee, Elements of Theology, pp. 435, 436.)

obligation of benevolence rests entirely upon the good Which may be accomplished. Great caution, however, is always needed in the administration of benevolences, lest we unwittingly encourage idleness and dependence; but it is better to err on the side of liberality, than to lean toward stinginess and hardness of heart.

 

THE INSTITUTIONS OF CHRISTIANITY

Man not only has duties to God, to himself and to other men, but he is a part of a social structure which demands certain organizations for the perpetuity of the race, for its conservation, and for its spiritual illumination and guidance. These are the Family, the State and the Church. Viewed from the divine standpoint, these are three departments of God's one invisible government; viewed from the human standpoint, they are the means by which the individual enlarges his personality and usefulness. Here we shall give attention to the Family and the State only, reserving our discussion of the Church for later chapters.

(I) MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY

Marriage is the earliest form of human relationships, and therefore the source and foundation of all others. Historically, both the Church and the State are but the outgrowth of the family, which in each instance is the unit of the social structure. Marriage may be defined as the voluntary compact between one man and one woman, based upon mutual affection, whereby they agree to live together as husband and wife, until separated by death. Several important factors must be taken into account:

1. Marriage is primarily a divine institution. This is clear (1) from the distinction of sex in creation (Gen. 1:7); (2) from the divine declaration (Gen. 2:18); (3) from the fact that the husband and wife acknowledge its divine origin in making their vows of mutual fidelity before God; and (4) from the added fact that its existence before the origin of civil society in the broader sense, proves it to be a divine institution. Since the essence of the marriage contract is the mutual vows taken in the Sight of God and the presence of witnesses, it should not be entered into unadvisedly, "but reverently, discreetly and in the fear of God." The ceremony should be performed by a minister of Christ, for he alone is authorized to represent the law of God, and to receive and register the vows made in the divine presence. God, having instituted marriage at the beginning, it is clearly the duty of man in general, to live in the wedded state. There are, however, grounds for exception in particular instances.

[In regard to the duty of every person to marry, Mr. Watson says, "There was no need of the law being directed to each individual as such, since the instincts of nature and the affection of love planted in human beings were suilicient to guarantee its general observance. The very bond of marriage, too, being the preference founded upon love, rendered the act one in which choice and feeling were to have great influence; nor could a prudent regard to circumstances be excluded. Cases were possible in which such a preference as is essential to felicity and advantages of that state might not be excited, nor the due degree of affection to warrant the union called forth. There might be cases in which circumstances might be inimical to the full discharge of some of the duties of that state; as the comfortable maintenance of a wife, and proper provision for children. Some individuals would also be called by Providence to duties in the church and in the world, which might better be performed in a single and unfettered life; and seasons of persecution, as we are taught by St. Paul, have rendered it an act of Christian prudence to abstain even from this honorable estate. The general rule, however, is in favor of marriage; and all exceptions seem to require justification on some principle grounded upon an equal or paramount obh.gation."Watson, Theological Institutes, II, p. 543.

Dr. Gregory states the "Prerequisites of the Marriage Compact" as follows: "Bodily defect and mental imbecility, hereditary disease, and extreme old age have been thought sufficient to prevent those who labor under them from entering upon the married state. But, beyond this, it is evident that morality must require: First, that the parties shall be capable of giving a voluntary and deliberate consent. Hence, all forced marriages are immoral, as the compact is not voluntary. All marriages, entered into before the age at which it may reasonably be supposed that the parties fully understand the conditions, duties and responsibilities of the marriage state, are immoral, as the compact is not deliberate. Secondly, that the relations of consanguinlty and affinity previously subsisting between the parties shall not be too near. By the Roman law, marriages were declared incestuous, 'when the parties were too nearly related by consanguinity that is, being of the same blood, as brother and sister; or by affinity that is, by being connected through marriage, as father-in-law and daughter-in-law.' The Levitical law corresponded closely to the Roman in this respect. That marriages between those who are thus closely related are unnatural, and hence immoral, may be shown by the following considerations: (1) the natural affections which relatives have is incompatible with conjugal love; (2) the prohibition of such marriages is requisite to domestic purity, and to health and welfare, bodily and mental, of the children; (3) the prohibition is necessary that the ties which bind society together may be multiplied by marriages between those who are not previously related. Thirdly, that neither of the parties be already united in marriage, or obligated to marriage, to another. The betrothal is only less sacred than the marriage, and interposes an effectual barrier to marriage with another person. It should be borne in mind, however, that the betrothal is not marriage, but a mutual promise of future marriage; and that it must therefore be governed, not by the law of marriage, but by the law of promise. Fourthly, that there be mutual affection as the only true basis of a moral, peaceful and happy domestic life. "The manner in which marriage has been sanctioned and celebrated has been very different in different countries and ages. It is evident that the preservation of a pure morality requires some proper public sanction at the entrance into the marriage relation, by the ministers of religion, or by authorized officers of the civil law. Laxness in this respect always tends to immorality." - GREGORY, Christian Ethics, pp. 271, 272.

Whether marriage be a civil or religious contract has been a subject of dispute. The truth seems to be that it is both. It has its engagements to men, and its vows to God. A Christian state recognizes marriage as a branch of public morality, and a source of civil peace and strength. It is connected with the peace of society by assigning one woman to one man, and the state protects him, therefore, in her exclusive possession. Christianity, by allowing divorce in the event of adultery, supposes, also, that the crime must be proved by proper evidence before the civil magistrate; and lest divorce should be the result of unfounded suspicion, or be made a cover for license, the decision of the case could safely be lodged nowhere else. Marriage, too, as placing one human being more completely under the power of another than any other relation, requires laws for the protection of those who are thus exposed to injury. The distribution of society into families also, can only be an instrument for promoting the order of the community, by the cognizance which the law takes of the head of a family and by making him responsible, to a certain extent, for the conduct of those under his influence. Questions of property are also involved in marriage and its issue. The law must, therefore, for these and many other weighty reasons, be cognizant of marriage; must prescribe various regulations respecting it; require publicity of the contract; and guard some of the great injunctions of religion in the matter by penalties. - Watson, Theological Institutes, II, p. 546.]

2. Marriage is also a civil contract. This arises from its connection with civil society in the following or like instances. (1) A Christian state recognizes marriage as a matter of public morality, and a source of civil peace and strength. The peace of society is promoted especially by the separation of one man and one Woman to each other, and the civil law protects them in their mutual rights and obligations. (2) Marriage distributes society into families, and the law takes cognizance of this, by making the head of the family responsible in a large measure for the conduct of those under his influence. (3) Property rights are also involved in marriage and its issue, and these must be secured by the state. (4) The state by common moral consent, has the prerogative of determining what marriages are lawful; to require publicity of the contract, and to prescribe various regulations respecting it. It is evident from the above reasons, that marriage cannot be left entirely to religion, thus shutting out the cognizance and control of the state. But neither can it be left wholly to the state. Marriage is a solemn religious act, and the vows are made to God; so that when the rite is properly understood, they agree to abide by all the laws with which He has guarded the institution.

3. Marriage is the union of one man and one woman. It is, therefore, not only opposed to polygamy, but to all other forms of promiscuity. That the Christian form of marriage is monogamic is based on the following considerations: (1) That God constituted marriage in the beginning, as the union of one man with one woman (Gen. 2:18, 21-24). (2) That the primary ends of marriage are best secured by this form-such as mutual affection, mutual interest in the children, and provision for their proper training. (3) That any other form of marriage divides the affections of the parents, and reduces women from wives and companions to slaves and drudges. But the highest authority which the Church has for its belief in monogamic marriage is to be found in the confirmatory words of our Lord himself, when He said, Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh? Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder (Matt. 19:4-6).

4. Marriage is a permanent institution, and can be dissolved naturally only by the death of one of the parties. There are, however, unnatural methods by which this relation is severed. (1) It is dissolved by adultery. Christ's teaching at this point is specific. But I say unto you, That whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery: and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery (Matt. 5: 32). (2) Protestantism has quite generally interpreted St. Paul to teach that wilful desertion also dissolves the marriage bond. He says, But if the unbelieving depart, let him depart. A brother or sister is not under bondage in such cases: but God hath called us to peace (I Cor. 7: 15). Dr. Gregory points out, however, that "It is probable, from the tenacity with which the Scriptures elsewhere adhere to adultery as the proper ground of divorce, that desertion justifies divorce only as it implies adultery, as the two doubtless always went together in that licentious age" (GREGORY, Christian Ethics, p.273). It seems clear, therefore, that the gospel does not allow divorce except for the single cause of adultery. As to the positive

[Marriage is an indissoluble compact between one man and one woman. It cannot be dissolved by any voluntary act of repudiation on the part of the contracting parties; nor by any act of the church or state. "Those whom God bath joined together no man can put asunder." The compact may, however, be dissolved, although by no legitimate act of man. It is dissolved by death. It is dissolved by adultery, and, as Protestants teach, by wilful desertion. In other words, there are certain things which from their nature work a dissolution of the marriage bond. All the legitimate authority the state has in the premises is to take cognizance of the fact that the marriage is dissolved; officially to announce it; and to make suitable provision for the altered relation of the parties. - Hodge, Systematic Theology, III, pp. 393, 394.

As it respects divorce, the Christian law cannot be understood without reference to the Mosaic legislation, which it generally comprises. Our Lord makes very express reference to the matter: correcting ancient traditional errors on this subject, just as He corrected traditional errors on the subject of adultery. He could not have declared more absolutely than He did that marriage is a permanent compact, which neither the parties concerned nor any human power can dissolve; save on the conditions appointed by God himself. Whatever those conditions might have been in the days of the people's hardness of heart (Matt. 19:8) it is clear that our New Lawgiver has decreed that only one offence, fornication, shall dissolve the marriage bend: Whosoever shall put away his wife, except it be for forulcation, and shall marry another, committeth adultery" (Matt. 19:9; Mark 10:11, 12). Under the old law, the penalty of adultery was death; our Lord's legislation tacitly abolishes that: moreover, He gives porneiva the same meaning as moiceiva, which generally signifies the same offence committed by a married person. A remarkable phase of the same question occurs in connection with the new relations between married persons of differing faith. Our Lord had intimated that the divorced might marry again. St. Paul, in his treatment of the question as to the desertion, deliberate and final, of an unbelieving partner, says that the forsaken one is free: "let him depart: a brother or a sister is not under bondage in such cases" (I Cor. 7:15). What the extent of this freedom is Scripture does not say; but it has generally been held that desertion is, equally with adultery, valid ground of divorce under the New Law. - POPE, Compend. Chr. Th., III, p. 240.]

considerations in favor of the permanency of marriage, We may note the following: (1) It must be permanent in order to the accomplishment of the moral and Spiritual ends of the individuals entering into this compact. (2) Permanency is demanded in order to the establishment of the interesting and influential relations of acknowledged children and parents, from which the purest and most endearing affections result. (3) It is necessary, also, to the proper training of children in obedience and virtue within the home, and to their affectionate advice and direction when they go out from the home. (4) Lastly, God has declared, both by His law in man S nature with its growing affections, and by explicit statement in His Word, that marriage is and ought to be a permanent estate.

[ Dr. Charles Hodge has the following excellent treatment of Divorce: Its Nature and Effects. He says, "Divorce is not a mere separation, whether temporary or permanent, a mensa et thoro. It is not such a separation as leaves the parties in the relation of husband and wife, and simply relieves them from the obligation of their relative duties. Divorce annuls the vinculum matrimonil, so that the parties are no longer man and wife. They stand henceforth to each other in the same relation as they were before marriage. That this is the true idea of divorce is plain from the fact that under the old dispensation if a man put away his wife, she was at liberty to marry again (Deut. 24:1, 2). This of course supposes that the marriage relation to her former husband was effectually dissolved. Our Lord teaches the same doctrine. The passages in the Gospels referring to this subject are Matt. 5:31, 32; 19:3-9; Mark 10:2-12; and Luke 16:18. The simple meaning of these passages seems to be, that marriage is a permanent compact, which cannot be dissolved at the will of either of the parties. If, therefore, a man arbitrarily puts away his wife and marries another, he commits adultery. If he repudiates her on just grounds and marries another, he commits no offense. Our Lord makes the guilt of marrying after separation to depend on the ground of the separation. Saying, 'that if a man puts away his wife for any cause save fornication, and marries another, he commits adultery'; is saying that 'the offense is not committed if the specified ground for divorce exists.' And this is saying that divorce, when justifiable, dissolves the marriage tie. Although this seems so plainly to be the doctrine of the Scriptures, the opposite doctrine prevailed early in the church, and soon gained the ascendancy. Augustine himself taught in his work 'De Conjuglis Adulterinis,' and elsewhere, that neither of the parties after divorce could contract a new marriage. In his 'Retractiones,' however, he expresses doubt on the subject. It passed, however, into canon law, and received the authoritative sanction of the Council of Trent. . . . The indisposition of the mediaeval and Romish Church to admit of remarriages after divorce is no doubt to be attributed in part to the low idea of the marriage state prevailing in the Latin church. It had its ground, however, in the interpretation given to certain passages of scripture. In Mark 10:11, 12, and in Luke 16:18, our Lord says without any qualification: 'Whosoever putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, committeth adultery; and whosoever marrieth her that is put away from her husband committeth adultery.' As, however, there is no doubt of the genuineness of the passages in Matthew, they cannot be overlooked. One expression of the will of Christ is as authoritative and as satisfactory as a thousand repetitions could make it. The exception stated in Matthew, therefore, must stand. The reason for the omission in Mark and Luke may be accounted for in different ways. It is said by some that the exception was of necessity understood from its very nature, whether mentioned or not. Or having been stated twice, its repetition was unnecessary. Or what perhaps is most probable, as our Lord was' speaking to Pharisees, who held that a man might put away his wife when he pleased, it was enough to say that such divorces as they were accustomed to did not dissolve the bonds of marriage, and that the parties remained as much man and wife as they were before. Under the Old Testament, divorce on the ground of adultery, was out of the question, because adultery was punished by death. And, therefore, it was only when Christ was laying down the law of His own kingdom, under which the death penalty for adultery was to be abolished, that it was necessary to make any reference to that crime." - HODGE, Systematic Theology, III, pp. 391-393.

The Roman Catholic Church regards marriage as a sacrament, which Protestantism denies. The Roman Catholic Church also denies the right of remarriage to all divorced persons, regardless of the grounds of divorce. It claims the right, however, to establish impedimenta, or causes why certain parties cannot lawfully be joined in matrimony, and, therefore, the right of annulment. Of these impediments, some are merely forbidding (impedimenta impedientia); others are annulling (impedimenta dirimentia). The former make the marriage illicit, the latter render it also invalid. The annulling impediments are (a) error regarding the person's identity; (b) violence or compulsion; (c) blood relationship in direct line indefinitely; collaterally as far as the fourth degree; spiritually, between godchildren and godchildren's parents; affinity arising from marriage to the fourth degree. Betrothal constitutes an impediment 

extending only to the first degree. (d) Solemn profession of religious and sacred orders; (e) disparity of religion, when one of the contracting parties is not baptized; (f) crime, such as adultery with the mutual promise of marriage; (g) violent abduction and detention of a woman with a view to marriage; (h) clandestinity, wherever the decree of the Council of Trent in reference to this matter is promulgated. The decree requires the marriage to be celebrated before the parish priest, or some other lawfully delegated priest and two or three witnesses. (Cf. Wilmers, Handbook of the Christian Religion, pp. 376, 377.)

Due to the fact that in Mark 10:11, 12 and Luke 16:18, our Lord asserts without qualification that remarriage after divorce is adultery, there have always been those in the church who make a sharp distinction between divorce and remarriage allowing the first for the cause of adultery, but denying the second in any case. This view makes divorce merely a separation without breaking the vinculam matrimonii. However, the exception made by our Lord, though stated but once, must be regarded as having full authority, and the term divorce as He used it, must be admitted in its widest acceptation. But the divorce evil is of such magnitude, that it demands drastic though wise action on the part of the church, and utmost caution on the part of the ministry. Even though it be granted that the innocent party is according to the Scriptures free to remarry, there are other considerations that must be taken into account. There is ever the possibility that the guilty party may be converted, in which event there is a possibility of healing the estrangement and preserving the original agreement. Then there is the necessity of social adjustment on the part of the children, which must be given serious consideration. While divorce usually takes place when the parties are sinners, remarriage makes great problems for them, if later they become Christians. These problems are perhaps the most serious that ministers are called upon to face In their pastoral work. While faithfulness is demanded, in no case should these peculiarly perplexing problems be treated with severe legality and harshness. In many instances, only the providences of God can untangle the tangled skein.

5. The purpose of marriage as a public institution is, according to Mr. Paley, to promote the following benefits: (1) The private comfort of individuals. (2) The production of the greatest number of healthy children, their better education, and the making of due provisions for their settlement in life. (3) The peace of human society, by assigning one woman to one man, and protecting his exclusive right by sanction of morality and law. (4) The better government of society, by distributing the community into separate families, and appointing over each the authority of master of a family, which has more actual influence than all civil authority put together. (5) The additional security which the state receives for the good behavior of its citizens from the solicitude they feel for the welfare of their children, and from their being confined 

to permanent habitations. (6) The encouragement of industry. These benefits are so evident that they need but little comment. Since they are chiefly economic, they will be given further consideration in our discussion of the duties of the married state. It is sufficient here to mention only the moral and spiritual benefits which accrue to the individuals and to the community at large. Mr. Watson has well said of marriage, that "It is indeed scarcely possible even to sketch the numerous and important effects of this sacred institution, which at once displays, in the most affecting manner, the divine benevolence and the divine wisdom. It secures the preservation and tender nature of children, by concentrating an affection upon them, which is dissipated and lost wherever fornication prevails. It creates conjugal tenderness, filial piety, the attachment of brothers and sisters, and of collateral relations. It softens the feelings, and increases the benevolence of society at large, by bringing all these affections to operate powerfully within each of those domestic and family circles of which society is composed. It excites industry and economy; and secures the communication of moral knowledge, and the inculcation of civility, and early habits of submission to authority by which men are fitted to become the subjects of a public government, and without which, perhaps, no government could be sustained but by brute force, or it may be, not sustained at all. These are some of the innumerable benefits, by which 

marriage promotes human happiness, and the peace and strength of the community at large" (WATSON, Theological Institutes, II, pp. 543, 544). This brings us to a consideration of the so-called domestic duties as follows: (1) The Duties of Husbands and Wives; (2) the Duties of Parents and Children; and in a limited sense (3) Duties of Masters and Servants. 

Duties of Husbands and Wives. The marriage state demands first of all, the duty of mutual affection. This requires that the husband and wife shall preserve the same tender regard for each other, as that which furnishes the basis of the marriage compact. Where this principle is duly regarded, mutual affection increases with the years, and becomes deeper and stronger as each seeks to become more unselfish, more self-sacrificing and more lovely for the sake of each other. No higher standard of the marriage relation is conceivable, than that found in the holy Scriptures. This we anticipated in our discussion of creation (Cf. Christian Theology, II, pp.13, 14), but must now give it further consideration

[Dr. Robbins in his "Ethics of the Christian Life" in commenting on the injunction "Husbands love your wives even as Christ also loved the church and gave himself for it" (Eph. 5:25) points out that here is the thought of God, and not the thought of man. "How pure! How lofty! How ennobling! What dignity it puts upon the wife! With what moral baauty, a reflection from the radiance of the unapproachable Master himself, it clothes the husband! He loves not for what selfishly he can get, but for what he can get by unselfishly giving, giving to the wife, giving to the children, not in material gifts alone nor chiefly, but in the far better and more costly gift of a constant self-sacrifice, manifested in countless ways, gladly made to secure the best culture of mind and heart of all who are brought within the charmed circle of this earthly paradise He alone who as husband loses sight of self-will knows what exhaustless resources of benediction lie in wifehood, and who as father trains sons and daughters in his own likeness of self-sacrificing service to others will discover the possibilities of blessing in fatherhood" (pp. 55, 56).]

from the ethical viewpoint. The standards mentioned are given to us by St. Paul in connection with the symbolism of Christ and the Church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (Eph. 5:22-33); and in a briefer enunciation of principles found in His Epistle to the Colossians (Col. 3:18, 19). The latter is as follows: Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as it is fit in the Lord. Husbands, love your wives, and be not bitter against them. Here there seems to be an emphasis upon the active and passive phases of love; the former, that of the husband in his active care for the entire range of wifely needs; the latter, that of the wife in confiding in his strength; using With prudence and economy, the means of support, "and to be herself the chief joy and attraction in a home made attractive by thrift and the gentle ministries of a true womanly and wifely affection" (GREGORY, Christian Ethics, p. 280). If we examine these principles in the light of St. Paul's larger statement, we shall find (1) That the supreme duty of the husband to the wife is love. Womankind lives by love; and this love is what a pure woman craves from her husband above all else. In the absence of this, no degree of care, comfort or adornment will prove satisfying; with it, even the humblest abode is illumined with peculiar glory. Nothing can take the place of appreciative love. (2) This love is not a mere sentiment. In St. Paul's view, the husband is a living sacrifice in giving himself to the best interests of his wife, even as Christ also loved the Church and gave himself for it. (3) He is to provide for the comfortable support of his wife, protect her from injury and insult, and to devote his powers to elevate and bless her. For this reason he is called the saviour of the body. (4) Lastly, St. Paul submits as a test of the quality of this love, that men ought to love their wives as their own bodies. He that loveth his wife loveth himself. For no man ever yet hateth his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth it, even as the Lord the church (Eph. 5:28, 29). The climax of this devotion is found in the 

perfect union of hearts and lives, and hence St. Paul says, For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall be joined unto his wife, and they two shall be one flesh (Eph. 5:31). The duties of the wife are likewise expressed. For the love shown to her by her husband, she is to submit herself in confidence and love to him. This is qualified by the expression, "as it is fit in the Lord." The plain meaning is this, that the wife is to submit herself unto her husband with the same affectionate and submissive love, which they both bear to their Lord. Coarse natures have sometimes conceived of this text as demanding subordination of the wife to the mere will and whim of the husband, but this is carnal selfishness, not love. Love finds its truest liberty in the service of its object. The mutual love of husband and wife prompts each to serve the other "in the gladness of mutual captivity. The weakness of the wife waiting on the strength of the husband becomes strengthened by a might which holds him in a bondage more complete than slave ever knew, for it is the bondage of a willing spirit" (ROBBINS, The Ethics of the Christian Life, pp. 334, 335).

[ But apart from the mystical fellowship which it illustrates, no higher tribute to marriage is conceivable than this. It carries the dignity and sanctity of the marriage relation to the highest point short of making it a sacrament. It is the most intimate and sacred union conceivable; the mutual complement necessary to the perfection of man and womsn, and one which cannot be supposed to subsist with more than one person. As an institution for continuing the human race it is as pure in its own sphere as that union between the Bridegroom and the Brtde to which the spiritual increase of the Church itself is due. This sheds a strong light upon the various kinds of dishonor done to the ordinance. The violations of ethical obligation refer to the two final causes of marriage. First, in all those tempers and acts which interfere between the persons to impair the perfection of their unity, Christ's union with the Church being always in view: "Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto the Lord; for the husband is the head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the church Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ also loved the church (Eph. 5:22, 25). Here there is much to ponder. The inmost grace of the wife as such is the love of submission: the earthly reflection of that loyal homage of devotion which the man was commanded to offer: "He is thy Lord; and worship thou him" (Psaims 45:11). The inmost grace of the husband is perfect self-sacrificing love. The two are one; and their union is sacred. Their communion, therefore, down to the slightest offices of affection, must be pure. Thence arise interior ethics which need not be dwelt upon; a hint of which, however, St. Paul gives when he says, "Defraud ye not one the other, except it be with consent for a time . . . . that Satan tempt you not for your incontinency" (I Cor. 7:5). This leads to the other class of offenses: the sinful indulgence of those lusts which war against the second primary purpose of marriage: adultery, with all the train of vices that precede, accompany, and follow it. - POPE, Compend. Chr. Th., III, p. 239.]

1. The mutual affection of husband and wife demands strict fidelity to the marriage 

contract. It especially forbids every violation of the law of chastity, as destroying the purity and harmony of the home, and corrupting society at large. Hence in all ages, and by all laws of God and man, it has been treated as an aggravated and serious offense. In Jewish law, the crime of unchastity was punished with death (Lev. 20:10). But fidelity to the marriage compact not only forbids criminal relations, but whatever tends to weaken the mutual esteem of husband and wife. Here may be mentioned especially, the want of mutual kindness and attention, or the preferring of the society of others to that of each other.

2. Mutual co-operation is essential on the part of husband and wife, if the family is to accomplish its highest mission. The two must recognize a common purpose and labor together in a common cause. "The so common estrangement of husband and wife," says Dr. Gregory, "often begins just here. The two recognize no common mission, sympathy, and work; the man becomes absorbed in his business or his profession, and the woman in fashion or household cares; they cease to look for common thoughts, common interests, and common joys; their love loses its height and purity and unselfishness, and wedded life loses its attractiveness and grandeur and becomes a commonplace and base thing, shorn of all noble aspiration and true inspiration. Mutual sympathy and co-operation in the one great work of life furnish the true preventive of such evils. In the one chosen pursuit along which the husband makes his way in the world, the wife must bring to bear her powerful aid, in the inspiration of intelligent wifely interest, sympathy, and effort; and so the two, 'thought in thought, purpose in purpose, will in will,' may together accomplish tenfold more than would be possible to the man alone" (GREGORY, Christian Ethics, p. 279).

3. The marriage relation demands organization. In all organized societies, whether in church or state, there must be a head - some responsible party; so also it must be in the family. Here the husband is the constituted head. This is clearly taught, both by the law of nature and by the Scriptures (Eph. 5:22-33; Col. 3:18, 19; I Peter 1:7). The outside contacts of the home demand that someone be responsible for the family as a whole. Each family must have a head, and God has seen fit to make the husband the head of the home. For this he is better fitted by nature than the wife who requires more seclusion, protection and appreciative love. Within the home, the wife rules as queen. By her kindness of heart, the depth of her feelings and affections, and the delicate discrimination and insight which she possesses, she is eminently fitted for rule in the domestic realm which is her chief glory. Here she must ever be the mistress and the central object of attraction. The husband is better fitted for the harder and more public pursuits of life. God has made him stronger physically, and thereby better qualified him to be the leader, supporter and defender of the home. He is the natural protector of his wife. Upon him, therefore, devolves the duty and responsibility of providing for the home, and this is exacted of him by the laws of both God and man. It is written that if any provide not for his own, and especially for those of his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel (I Tim. 5:8).

[ Some may talk of man's superiority by nature, but that is only a dream of the imagination. The doctrine here advocated, is not based upon man's supposed superiority, but upon nature's law of adaptation. Man is doubtless superior to woman in some respects; as a general rule, he can stand under greater weight, run with greater speed, and clamber over rocks and mountains with greater ease, but in point of all that can delight the eye of God and holy angels, he is not woman's superior. But he is better adapted to the sphere our doctrine assigns him, and she is better adapted to the sphere assigned her by the same doctrine. The natural qualities of women, aided by their position in society, tend powerfully to develop correct moral and religious principles; and immorality is less frequent, and piety more common among them than among men. The position of woman as the subject of the conjugal and maternal relations gives her the almost entire control of the care each successive generation is intrusted in the earliest periods of its existence. From her the first impressions on the susceptible mind of infancy are received. The infant character is molded and modified in many respects by her hand. Her gentleness, whether exalted or grovelling, is the school of childhood. In this maternal school we take our lessons; under this discipline we form our characters for time and eternity. The maternal office is, therefore, an office of the greatest dignity and usefulness, and challenges our highest admiration and esteem. - LEE, Elements of Theology, p. 390.]

Duties of Parents and Children. In this relation, the first duty devolves upon the parents. But as the children increase in years and understanding, they become involved in the obligation of duties to parents. The duty of parents to children cannot of course be adequately stated, but may be summed up in general, as follows: (1) Parental affection; (2) Parental care and training; and (3) Parental government and direction.

1. The first duty of parents to children is that of parental affection, upon which all else depends. It is the motive from which springs the obligation to protect and rear the children as worthy members of the social structure. It becomes the duty of parents, therefore, to cherish this affection in its purest and most unselfish form, for upon it depend the character and destiny of the children.

[The origin and growth of such affection are provided for in the constitution of the family itselL It has its first natural root in the mutual affection of husband and wife, and is not to be expected in any proper measure where this does not exist. It has its second natural root in the relation of the children to the parents as "bone of their bone and flesh of their flesh." Paul presents a principle of universal application when he declares that "no man ever yet hated his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth it." It has its third natural root in the innocent helplessness of the child, which makes the bosom of its parents so long its place of security and rest. This is the most powerful of all influences for the development of the fatherly and motherly tenderness; and the parents, who turn the children over to the almost exclusive care of menials and hirelings, place themselves in measure beyond its reach, and so make the highest and purest and most intense development of parental affection impossible. It has its fourth root in right and adequate views of the immortal existence and boundless possibilities of the child nature, and of the grandeur of training it for immortal goodness and glory. The parental love that does not strike deep root in this is of the earth and time only, and furnishes no fit motive to the training of the children for the highest mission. - Gregory, Christian Ethics, p. 281.]

2. The second duty is that of' parental care and training. This of necessity includes the proper nourishment of the body, and a wholesome physical environment; the education of the mind in accordance with the gifts and abilities of each particular child; and the development of high moral standards. Hence St. Paul commands parents to bring up their children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord (Eph. 6:4). The importance of early training is set forth in the proverb, Train up a child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it (Prov. 22:6). All this will be of little avail, unless the child is brought early to a knowledge of Christ's saving power, and experiences the divine grace which changes the heart and implants within it the principle of obedience to God. Childhood conversion may appear to many as being narrow in its range of experience, but the essential, the change of the heart, is the same, whether in children or mature persons.

3. The third parental duty is that of family government. Children are without the knowledge necessary to direct themselves, and it becomes the duty of the parents therefore to exercise wise control in the direction of their conduct. This authority must be absolute in infancy and early childhood, but will be relaxed proportionately to the ability of youth to govern itself. That family government should be firm, but kind and liberal, is implied in the words of St. Paul, And, ye fathers, provoke not your children to wrath (Eph. 6:4); and Fathers, provoke not your children to anger, lest they be discouraged (Col. 3:21).

[The character of the parent must itself have been formed upon his teaching to make it effective upon his child. If a father would have his son live as in the presence of the unseen and eternal, if he would have him live above the world while living in it, if he would have him use the world as not abusing it, if he would have him attain to self-mastery, if he would have him live for the kingdom of God, the parent must himself exemplify these virtues. In a word, let both father and mother manifest the power of the new life hid with Christ in God in the unrestrained and familiar intercourse of family life; let this object lesson be reinforced by judicious instruction and admonition, then, in that case, the ancient proverb will be verified, "Train up a child in the way he should go; and when lie is old, he will not depart from it" (Prov. 22:6). Children are continually, though unconsciously to themselves, taking snapshots of the characters of their elders, and will carry their spiritual photographs as unfading impressions on their souls. - Robbins, The Ethics of the Christian Life, p. 336.]

The duties of children to their parents are to be found in the reciprocation of the parental duties, and may be summed up under two general heads, (1) Obedience, and (2) Reverence. As to obedience, the scriptural injunction is. Children, obey your parents in the Lord: for this is right (Eph. 6:1); and Children, obey your parents in all things: for this is well pleasing unto the Lord (Col. 3:20). It is the child's duty to yield cheerfully to the instruction and direction which the superior wisdom of the parents may dictate. Parents are God's constituted officers to administer the government of their respective families; and to obey them in the exercise of their legitimate authority is to obey God. Like other rulers, parents may abuse their power, but in such a case the child is to obey only "in the Lord." As to reverence, this includes the deference and respect due all superiors, and especially parents. So important is this, that it is enforced by one of the Commandments of the Decalogue: Honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee (Exod. 20:12). St. Paul calls this the first commandment with promise (Eph. 6:2). The word honor as here used, includes affection and obedience; and we may say also gratitude. It seeks, therefore, to requite in every way, the parental love so lavishly bestowed, and to provide generously for the parents when age with its helplessness and infirmity, overtakes them. Herein especially is the spirit of Christianity manifested.

[ Children are committed to the care of their parents in a state of helpless dependence, from whom they must receive every care, and be nurtured by the most tender hand, to keep alive the feeble vital spark with which their existence is first kindled, until the fires of life shall burn stronger. Each of the parents has an appropriate work to perform, but the mother's gentle hand and heart of love are put in immediate requisition, and have most important purposes to answer. An immortal being is in her arms and on her bosom; a soul with boundless faculties of thought and feelings hangs upon her lips of tenderness, and drinks intelligence from her kindling eye. Faculties capable of angelic intelligence, and heavenly virtue are slumbering in her arms and reposing on her breast. She must first call them into exercise, and give them impulses which they will never cease to feel. By the kindness of her heart, by the delicacy of her feelings and sentiments, and by her nice discrimination and accurate judgment, she is well fitted for her task. She plies her labors with unwearied assiduity; As months roll away, her immortal charge improves under her care, till the laughing lips and kindling eye respond to her own deep sympathies, and love and happiness fill the soul and expand its powers. This tender and watchful care has to be continued for years, but it is soon merged in other and sterner duties, as the infant becomes a prattling child, and as the child becomes a youth. This prepares the way for a second branch of duty. It is the duty of parents to govern their children. This is a work of great importance, and often of great difficulty. It is a work in which both parents must take a part, and co-operate to sustain each other's influence and authority. After the mother's tuition has been in progress for some time, the child comes under the sterner authority and severer influence of the father. The mother's tenderness and exquisite sensibility are necessary in the earlier stages of improvement; but, at a later period, the more vigorous modes of paternal discipline are equally requisite to a proper formation of character. The mother operates earliest, and continues her kind and sympathizing attentions to the last. The Father commences his appropriate influences after a certain degree of progress has been attained, and contributes to give manliness and energy to the character. - LEE, Elements of Theology, pp.391, 392.

The true conception of the design of parental authority sets in their true light the loose views of some of the most popular of the would-be moral and religious teachers of the present day. The most certain way to undermine all morality, to corrupt the family, the society, the state, and the race, and to bring in the reign of vice and crime and godlessness, is to lower the public estimate of the sacred character of parental authority, by holding up to ridicule the strictness of the parental training to which these very teachers owe everything they are that is not base and contemptible, and which was moreover in accordance with God's Word. - Gregory, Christian Ethics, p. 214.]

Duties of Masters and Servants. The terms master and servant in the broad sense apply to the various forms of voluntary labor performed for a consideration. In the Old Testament, hired 

servants were regarded as a part of the household; and in the time when St. Paul wrote slavery existed in the Roman empire. This accounts for his reference to the bond and the free. The terms employer and employee as used in modern times express the same scriptural idea. Due to the various forms of specialized labor, and the growth of large capitalistic corporations, this relation has in modern times become exceedingly complex and difficult. For our purpose, however, it is sufficient to mention only the underlying principles given us in the Scriptures; which if properly observed would doubtless do much toward solving some of the more acute problems of the present time. To the servants or employees, St. Paul gives the following instructions: Servants, be obedient to them that are your masters according to the flesh, with fear and trembling, in singleness of you? heart, as unto Christ; not with eyeservice, as menpleasers; but as the servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart: with good will doing service, as to the Lord, and not to men; knowing that whatsoever good thing any man doeth, the same shall he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or free (Eph. 6:5-8). Christianity thus considers even the most 

humble Service as worthy 0# reward, if it be performed cheerfully and faithfully as unto the Lord. Concerning masters or employers, he says, And, ye masters, do the same things unto them, forbearing threatening: knowing that your Master also is in heaven; neither is there respect of persons with him (Eph. 6:9). Here the duty of exercising control in the spirit of brotherly kindness is made imperative. The Christian spirit forbids harshness or cruelty, whether brutal or refined, all tyrannical measures or unjust demands, all threatening or reprisals. On the contrary, it demands that employees be given their just rights and prerogatives, proper and wholesome environment for working conditions, and fair wages proportioned to the skill of the laborer and the cost of living.

 

(II) THE STATE; OR CIVIL GOVERNMENT

The chief design of the state is to furnish man a wider sphere of social activity. Since man's moral nature is in disorder, his unregulated development must of necessity lead to unjust interference with the rights of other men. Civil government, therefore, is intended to protect its citizens from all violence, and to secure to each individual the peaceable enjoyment of all his rights, to the best of its ability. The state must in the very nature of the case, exercise authority in regulating public conduct; and this it does by laws based upon the immutable law of right. Penalty must be used in the enforcement of the law if need be; guilt must be made dangerous, and crime must become serious even to the criminal. It is important to note, however, that the sovereignty of civil authority lies in the state itself, and not in any king or ruler whatever. This is established by the fact that the state exists before all rulers, and by the additional fact, that rulers are at the most, but its instruments. With the development of civilization, civil government has become complex and embraces the fields of political science, economics, constitutional and

industrial history, law, education and sociology in all its ramifications. It is sufficient for our purpose, therefore, as in the preceding section, to briefly state the underlying Christian principles 

concerning civil government. We mention the following: (1) Prayer for rulers. I exhort therefore, that, first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks, be made for all men; for kings, and for all that are in authority; that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty (I Tim. 2:1). (2) Obedience to those in authority. Put them in mind to be subject to principalities, and powers, to obey magistrates, to be ready to every good work, to speak evil of no man, to be no brawlers, but gentle, shewing all meekness unto all men (Titus 3:1, 2). (3) Government is ordained of God. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God: the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God: and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation (Rom. 13:1, 2). (4) Rulers must enforce the penalties of the law. For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same: for he is the minister of God to thee for good. But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid: for he beareth not the sword in vain:

 for he is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil (Rom. 13:3, 4). (5) Christians must be subject to government for conscience' sake. Wherefore ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath, but also for conscience' sake (Rom. 13:5). (6) Government must be supported. For this cause pay ye tribute also: for they are God's ministers, attending continually upon this very thing. Render therefore to all their dues: tribute to whom tribute is due; custom to whom custom; fear to whom fear; honour to whom honour (Rom. 13:6, 7). St. Paul, therefore, applies the principle of love to the affairs of state in the same manner that he does to those of domestic and social life. He sums up the whole matter in these words, Owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law (Rom. 13:8).

The relation of divine authority to human government is a question of vital importance, especially in times like the present, when the very foundations of human government are being restudied and reappraised. Two statements are found in theological science which may well be regarded as classical. The first is that of Dr. Charles Hodge (1797-1878) entitled, Obedience Due to Civil Magistrates; the second is that of Dr. William Burton Pope (1822-1903) entitled Political Ethics. Both of these are given in the appended notes - the first in greatly abbreviated form. They are worthy of careful study as representing the scriptural teaching on this important subject.

[OBEDIENCE DUE TO CIVIL MAGISTRATES

The whole theory of civil government and the duty of citizens to their rulers, are comprehensively stated by the apostle in Romans 13:1-5. It is there taught: (1) That all authority is of God. That civil magistrates are ordained of God. (3) That resistance to them is resistance to Him; they are ministers exercising His authority among men. (4) That obedience to them must be rendered as a matter of conscience, as a part of our obedience to God. From this it appears:

First, that civil government is a divine ordinance. It is not merely an optional human institution; something which men are free to have, as they see fit. It is not founded on any social compact; it is something which God commands. The Bible, however, does not teach that there is any one form of civil government which is always and everywhere obligatory. The form of government is determined by the providence of God and the will of the people. It changes as the state of society changes.

Second, it is included in the apostle's doctrine, that magistrates derive their authority from God; they are His ministers; they represent Him. In a certain sense they represent the people, as they may be chosen by them to be the depositaries of this divinely delegated authority; but the powers that be are ordained by God; it is His will that they should be, and that they should be clothed with authority.

Third, from this it follows that obedience to magistrates and to the laws of the land, is a religious duty. We are to submit to "every ordinance of man," for the Lord's sake, out of our regard to Him, as St. Peter expresses it; or for "conscience' sake," as the same idea is expressed by St. Paul. We are bound to obey magistrates not merely because we have promised to do so; or because we have appointed them; or because they are wise and good; but because such is the will of God. In like manner the laws of the land are to be observed, not because we approve of them, but because God has enjoined such obedience. This is a matter of great importance; it is the only stable foundation of civil government and of social order.

Fourth, another principle included in the apostle's doctrine is, that obedience is due to every de facto government, whatever its origin or character. His directions were written under the reign of Nero, and enjoined obedience to him. The early Christians were not called to examine the credentials of their actual rulers, every time the praetorian guard chose to depose one emperor and install another.

Fifth, the Scriptures clearly teach that no human authority is intended to be unlimited. Such limitation may not be expressed, but it is always implied. . . .The principles which limit the authority of civil government and of its agents are simple and obvious. The first is that governments and magistrates have authority only within their legitimate spheres. As civil government is instituted for the protection 6f life and property, for the preservation of order, for the punishment of evil doers, and for the praise of those who do well, it has to do only with the conduct, or external acts of men. It cannot concern itself with their opinions, whether scientific, philosophical or religious The magistrate cannot enter our families and assume parental authority, or our churches and teach as a minister. Out of his legitimate sphere a magistrate ceases to be a magistrate. A second limitation is no less plain. No human authority can ake it obligatory on a man to disobey God. If all power is from God, it cannot be legitimate when used against God. The apostles when forbidden to preach the gospel, refused to obey. When the three Hebrew children refused to bow down to the image which Nebuchadnezzar had made; when the early Christians refused to worship idols and when the protestant martyrs refused to profess the errors of the Romish church, they all commended themselves to God, and secured the reverence of all good men. On this point there can be no dispute. It is important that this principle should not only be recognized, but also publicly avowed. The sanctity of law, and the stability of human governments depend on the sanction of God. Unless they repose on Him, they rest on nothing. They have His sanction only when they act according to His will; that is in accordance with the design of their appointment and in harmony with the moral law.

Sixth, another general principle is that the question, When the civil government may be, and ought to be disobeyed, is one which every man must decide for himself. It is a matter of private judgment Every man must answer for himself to God, and, therefore, every man must judge for himself, whether a given act is sinful or not. Daniel judged for himself. So did Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. So did the apostles, and so did the martyrs. An unconstitutional law or commandment is a nullity; no man sins in disregarding it. He disobeys, however, at his peril. If his judgment is right, he is free. If it be wrong, in the view of the proper tribunal, he must suffer the penalty. There is an obvious distinction to be made between disobedience and resistance. A man is bound to disobey a law, or a command, which requires him to sin, but it does not follow that he is at liberty to resist its execution. The apostles refused to obey the Jewish authorities; but they submitted to the penalty inflicted. So the Christian martyrs disobeyed the laws requiring them to worship idols, but they made no resistance to the execution of the law When a government fails to answer the purpose for which God ordained it, the people have a right to change it. A father, if he shamefully abuses his power, may rightfully be deprived of authority over his children. - HODGE, Systematic Theology, III, pp. 357-360. 

POLITICAL ETHICS

Divine revelation has from the beginning been bound up with government, and the social and political affairs of the world. Its history shows the sanctification of every form of developing rule among men; from the primitive household and family, its simplest and typical form, to the most violent form of imperial despotism. We have now to do with the final teaching of the New Testament, about which there is little room for doubt. Its general principles are very plain, both as to the rulers and as to the ruled.

I. The institution of government is divine: not founded on any compact or agreement among men, as the modern figment is. The more carefully we examine the basis of tribal and national distinctions among men - in other words what goes to constitute a distinct peopl the more clearly shall we perceive that it is conditioned by a certain relation to God whose worship was the original bond of unity to every race, and whose representative the earthiy ruler was. Government was made for man and man was also made for it. The form of that government is not prescribed rigidly and definitely: certainly not in the Christian legislation. Every form of valid authority is sanctified in the Old Testament. The New Testament introduces a universal monarchy in the spiritual economy of things: and only in a very subordinate way deals with the kingdoms of this world. But the foundations of civil and political society for earth were laid in heaven: "the powers that be are ordained of God" (Rom. 13:1). Human magistrates represent the Supreme Judge: being in the state His deputies. "He is the minister of God to thee for good" (Rom. 13:4); for the protection and peace of the law-abiding, He is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath; for the administration of divine justice on transgressors. These principles are indisputable. The same term is used concerning the representation of ecclesiastical authority in the church and in the world: they are both diavkonoi and leitourgoiv, or ministers.

II. Obedience to magistrates and the government of the land is made part of the Christian law: expressly included in His ethics by our Lord on the broad ground of the duty to render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, though the Caesar of that day held the land in bondage. St. Paul recognized in his own person, and commands all men to recognize, what was at best a despotic and cruel authority. 

1. The duty of submission is, first, in a certain sense, passive. Whosoever, therefore, resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God; and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation (Rom. 13:2). This forbids, negatively, personal insurrection and resistance. How far submission is to be carried, at what point resistance is permitted - not to the individual as such, but to a people - is a question which our present ethics do not contemplate. Inter arma leges silent. The obligation comes in, however, before the arms are taken up. No individual Christian may resist without betraying his trust, and losing the meekness of his wisdom. When the question is concerning the law of God (Dan. 6:5), the servant of Jehovah must resist, but not until submission has had its perfect work.

2. Positively, obedience to the government requires that diligence be given to uphold the honor of the law at all points, and that for conscience' sake (Rom. 13:5-7). Much emphasis is laid both by our Lord and by His apostles on paying tribute to whom tribute is due: a principle which involves very important issues. "For this cause pay ye tribute also." Lot it be observed that St. Paul's ethics of submission to government follow and are, as it were, incorporated with his sublimest and most comprehensive doctrine of Christian morality.

3. The Bible, from beginning to end, inculcates and honors patriotism. It has been sometimes said that neither the sentiment of love to country nor that of personal friendship finds a place in Christian ethics. It is true that the supreme devotion to a kingdom which is not of this world (John 18:36) everywhere has the pre-eminence; and that the individual sympathies of friendship are merged in brotherly love. But both these sentiments are really inculcated and encouraged. There is no profane history that surpasses or equals its annals in examples of both, and Christianity must have the benefits of the old religion of which it is in a certain sense a continuation. - POPE, Compendium of Christian Theology, III, pp.251-253.]