GOOD NEWS ΤΟ THE POOR IN LUKE'S
GOSPEL
by
Mel Shoemaker
Cautiously we
venture into one of the great storm centers of New Testament scholarship (Van
Unnik, 16), knowing that the predominant interpretation of Luke gives emphasis
to a motif of divine blessedness and royal justice in favor of the poor. Α
survey of the third canonical gospel suggests that modem scholarship may have
exceeded the word and spirit of Jesus (cf. Ι Cor. 4:6), even promoting a
reverse discrimination and a limited gospel in favor of the poor. Would not
some have everyone join the ranks of St. Francis of Assisi, transforming the
church, the holy bride, into Lady Poverty? (Green, 126). Is the good news of
the kingdom of God a call for everyone to sell all one's possessions and give
to the poor? Are not some guilty of overlooking the fact that Luke's Gospel was
addressed to "most excellent Theophilus" (Lk. 1:3), and is characterized
further by a striking universalism, frequent table fellowship with wealthy
hosts, and an implied audience (readers), including the wise, the influential,
and perhaps even those of noble birth (cf. 1 Cor. 1:26)?
There are
four words which are relevant for this study: 'ενδεής, πενιχεάς,
πτωχός, and χρεία. Luke uses 'ενδεής
in Acts 4:34, which is the only occurrence of the word in the New Testament.
The word means "poor" or "impoverished" (Arndt, 261), and the NIV translates it
"needy" in the phrase, "There were no needy persons among them." The second
word found in the Lukan vocabulary is
πενιχρός, which appears in Luke 21:2,
and again this is its only occurrence in the New Testament canon.
The adjective πενιχρός is
related to the adjective πένης (Liddell, 542), and Aristophanes gives the
following explanation, "The life of a poor person
(πτωχός) is to live, having nothing at all,
whereas the life of a needy person (πένης) is to live
sparingly, and dependent on toil" (Plutus,
553, as quoted by Fitzmyer, 28Α: 1322). Indeed, such a person is poor,
and thus the NIV translates the phrase, "Jesus also saw a poor widow put in two small copper coins" (Luke 21:2). The fourth
word, χρεία, occurs seven times in Luke (5:31; 9:11; 10:42; 15:7; 19:31,34;
22:71) and five times in Acts (2:45; 4:35; 6:3; 20:34; 28:10). This
word signifies that "there is need of something," "a lack," or "a want" (Arndt,
893). Thus, Jesus healed those who needed
healing (Luke 9:11), and he needs a
colt to ride into Jerusalem (Luke 19:31, 34). The council of elders of the Jews
need no more witnesses to condemn
Jesus of blasphemy (Luke 22:71).
The crucial third word, πτωχός, translated "poor," occurs 34 times in the
NT (Mk., 5t; Lk., 10t; Mt. 5t; Jn., 4t; Pauline, 4t; Jas., 4t; Rev., 2t). This
word originally meant "destitute," "mendicant," "to beg for one's bread"
(Kittel, 6:886). The beggar has nothing, and lives at the lowest level of bare
existence. The word occurs some 100 times in the Old Testament (LXX), and
primarily "expresses a relation rather than a state of social distress," taking
on religious significance: "humble" and even "pious" (Kittel, 6:888). Is this
religious nuance present in Luke's Gospel? Or does Luke use
πτωχός only with social and economic
implications?
Six of the
ten occurrences of πτωχός in Luke are found in
pericopes peculiar to the author (Lk. 4:18; 14:13, 21; 16:20, 22; 19:8), and do
not allow for redactional comparison. Twice the word is found in Q material (Lk. 6:20; 7:22). In the
first of these, Matthew supplements "Blessed are you poor" with the phrase "in
spirit" (Mt. 5:3). Further, the final two occurrences are found in material
Luke uses from Mark and the Synoptic tradition, and "poor" is found in the
parallels (Lk. 18:22; 21:3) . Therefore,
it is observed that πτωχός does not occur in the
Lukan redactional material of the Gospel nor does it occur in Acts, and for
this reason it is to be concluded that the motif is not important to the
evangelist. In the words of Ernst Bammel, "Luke neither thinks from the standpoint
of the poor nor really seeks to address them" (Kittel, 6:907; cf. Conzelmann,
233; Esler, 165).
It is the
purpose of this paper to show that the Gospel according to Luke primarily
addresses, not the poor, but rather the wise, the influential and those of
noble birth, namely, Theophilus and his kind. The good news is written
primarily appealing to them, and yet, secondarily, to all who would read and
repent, take up their cross daily, and follow Jesus in discipleship. This
discipleship is characterized by repentance, humility, joy, generosity, and the
purposeful use of one's worldly wealth and influence to win friends for oneself
and the kingdom. Thus those addressed are to become channels or servants of the
loving mercy of God to the poor: to preach good news to the poor (Lk. 4:18;
7:22), to invite the poor to the banquet of God (Lk. 14:13, 21), and to promote
justice and protection for the poor (Lk. 8:1-8).
I. A CATHOLIC COMMUNITY
Luke's Gospel
has a peculiar catholic stamp (Cassidy, 24; Van Unnik, 19). It is good news to
all peoples on earth, beginning with the birth announcement of Gabriel to the
priest Zechariah, and continuing that motif with the news given to a virgin
named Mary. God is announcing good news to all people in every age. One reads
of this universalism in Mary's Magnificat,
"My soul
praises the Lord
and my spirit
rejoices in God my Savior,
for he has
been mindful of the humble state of his servant.
From now on all generations [italics mine] will call
me blessed..."
(Lk.
1:46-48).
Again, we see the motif
in the angel's announcement to the shepherds,
"Do not be
afraid. I bring you good news of great joy that will be for all the people [italics mine]" (Lk. 2:10).
Simeon continued this
theme in the birth narrative, as the infant Jesus was presented in the temple
after 40 days:
"For my eyes
have seen your salvation,
which you have prepared in the sight of all people [italics mine], a light for revelation to the Gentiles
and for glory to your people Israel" (Lk. 2:30-32).
The Lukan
motif becomes clearer as we come to the introduction of the mission and
preaching of John the Baptist. In this
Q material, we note that Matthew includes only the quotation of Isaiah
40:3:
"Α voice
of one calling in the desert,
'Prepare the
way for the Lord,
make straight
paths for him' "(Mt. 3:3).
Luke continues the
quotation, including Isaiah 40:4-5 also. For our purposes here, the last line is
of special significance: "'And all
mankind [italics mine] will see God's salvation' "(Lk. 3:6).
Unlike
Matthew who begins the genealogy of Jesus Christ with Abraham, the father of
Israel, Luke begins with Jesus and traces the generations back to Adam, the
father of all peoples (Lk. 3:23-38). In a similar inclusive way, where Matthew
reports Jesus as saying, "Many will come from the east and the west, and will
take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of
heaven" (Mt. 8:11), Luke expands the statement to read, "People will come from
the east and west and north and south [italics
mine], and will take their places at the feast in the kingdom of God" (Lk.
13:29).
This
universal motif is again reaffirmed in the resurrected Christ's commission to
the eleven apostles, as he says, "Repentance and forgiveness of sin will be
preached in his name to all nations [italics
mine], beginning at Jerusalem" (Lk. 24:47). This includes people of every generation
and every nation and every social class in those nations, both rich and poor.
The good news
is specifically addressed to "most excellent Theophilus" (Lk. 1:3). Theophilus
(Θεόφιλος) is a proper name, meaning "friend of God," and is common from the third
century before Christ. It has been found in both Greek papyri from Egypt and
inscriptions, and was used by both Gentiles and Jews (Fitzmyer, 299; Nolland,
10). Luke addresses him further with the honorific title, "most excellent"
(κράτιστε) .
This
title occurs three times in Acts ascribing honor to Felix, who was governor of
Judea, and then to his successor Governor Festus (Acts 23:26; 24:3; 26:25).
Felix, a former slave who had become a freedman, proved to be an incompetent
governor, with his two years in office troubled by numerous disturbances and
unrest (Koester, 1:399). And yet, Felix had been appointed to an official
office and was thus worthy of respect. When Luke addresses his Gospel to "most
excellent Theophilus," he is at least implying that Theophilus was socially
respected, probably well off, and highly placed in the society to which Luke
had access (Fitzmyer, 28:300).
Henry J.
Cadbury concludes that this dedication to "most excellent Theophilus" is merely
a "literary formula" which does not affect the contents of the work (203), and
Esler endorses Cadbury's conclusion (24). Cadbury adds, however, "It is to
possessors, not to the dispossessed, that Jesus speaks on alms and on the cares
and pleasures of property" (262). It is to this audience that Jesus says,
"Watch out! Be on your guard against all kinds of greed; a man's life does not
consist in the abundance of his possessions" (Luke 12:15). Luke's Gospel
appeals for a conscience and sense of duty among the privileged classes rather
than for social discontent and the rights of the economically deprived
(Cadbury, 263). Therefore, contrary to Cadbury and Esler, we would suggest
that the address to Theophilus does provide an explicit indication as to Luke's
implied reader/audience throughout his evangelistic apology. The Gospel is
addressed primarily to those who are far from poverty and are best described as
the wise, the influential and those of noble birth. They are in most cases
considered to be wealthy. Although the five pericopes in which "poor"
(πτωχός) occurs in Lukan material are more
indicative of the comprehensive, inclusive nature of the gospel than they are
of the redactional interest of the author, it is worthwhile to review our
findings.
The first pericope is the
story of Jesus' rejection in his hometown and synagogue of Nazareth (Lk.
4:16-30). Jesus read from the scroll of Isaiah (61:1-2), which states,
"The Spirit of the Lord
is on me,
because he
has anointed me
to
preach good news to the poor [italics mine].
He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners
and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the
year of the Lord's favor" (Lk. 4:18-19).
'One cannot avoid the
emphasis upon the theme, "good news to the poor," announced here. But to whom
is Jesus preaching? To his friends and neighbors in his hometown who remember
him as Joseph's son (Lk. 4:22). This pericope continues the Lukan emphasis upon
the nativity and humanity of Jesus, a righteous man and the son of Adam, but
far more, the Christ, the Son of God, and it fulfills a programmatic function
within Luke-Acts as a whole (Esler, 34). He has come to his own people, the
Jews, and they reject him. Jesus' sermon recalls Elijah's gracious ministry to
the starving widow of Zarephath (1 Kings 17:12), and then that of Elisha to the
leprous Syrian general Naaman, who was miraculously cured of his disease (2
Kings 5:1-5). According to Luke, both
non-Jews- a needy widow and a powerful, wealthy military commander-qualify as
"poor." Here, then, we see the broad meaning of the word "poor" in Luke's
vocabulary; one may be socially or economically poor in the sense of being
without a husband, food and/or shelter, or be helpless and dependent upon the
mercy of another without being economically destitute. Naaman is an example of
one who was rich in worldly wealth, but he was utterly dependent upon the mercy
of God and the prophet Elisha. Both were poor, humble beggars, who received
from the bounty of God's riches. Note:
"It is widely agreed that Luke's election of these
two characters is related to his desire to present the gospel as open to the
Gentiles. .. . Accordingly,
it
must be considered likely that Luke is making the further point that Jesus has
predicted and authorized the presence within the Christian community of both the
rich and the poor" (Esler, 180; cf. 183).
Luke, recounting a
prophetic drama of Israel's unbelief, recalls how Jesus' hometown rejects his
message and attempts to throw him down a cliff.
The second
story takes place in the house of a prominent Pharisee during Sabbath dinner
(14:1-24). In this section the word poor occurs twice, in what may be
considered two separate pericopes, given a common setting by the Evangelist.
The first is found in an admonition given to his host:
"When you give a luncheon or dinner, do not invite
your friends, your brothers or relatives, or your rich neighbors; if you do,
they may invite you back and so you will be repaid. But when you give a
banquet, invite the poor, the crippled,
the lame, the blind, and you will be blessed [italics mine]. Although they cannot repay you, you will be repaid at the resurrection of
the righteous" (Lk. 14:12-14).
The second is similar, as
it is addressed especially to one of those guests who was present (cf. 14: 15). Given Jesus' criticism of his host,
it may be presumed that this guest was either a friend, brother, relative, or
rich neighbor (Lk. 14:12). To this dinner guest and others present Jesus tells
the parable of the great banquet (Lk. 14:16-24). "Α certain man was
preparing a great banquet and invited many guests" (Luke 14:16), implying that
the host has some degree of wealth. At the time of the banquet those invited
refuse to come. Then the servant is sent out into the streets and alleys of the
town and told to "bring in the poor, the crippled, the blind and the lame" (Lk.
14:21). It is the host's desire that those first invited would come, but they
have other interests and refuse the invitation. T. W. Manson has argued that
the original guests invited were the Jews. The first of the new guests
represent the religious lower classes, such as tax collectors and sinners,
while the second group of new guests comes from distant and remote lands and
peoples (Manson, 130). Of course, one must not rule out the possibility of the
very literal meaning of "the poor, the crippled, the blind and the lame."
The third
story in which the word poor occurs happens to be the parable of the rich man
and Lazarus (Lk. 16:19-31). Once again the word occurs twice, as in Luke 14:1-24.
"There was a rich man who was dressed in purple and
fine linen and lived in luxury every day. At his gate was laid a beggar (πτωχός)
[italics mine] named Lazarus, covered with sores and longing to eat what fell
from the rich man's table. Even the dogs came and licked his sores.
"The time came when the beggar (πτωχός) [italics mine]
died and the angels carried him to Abraham's side. The rich man also died and
was buried. In hell, where he was in torment, he looked up and saw Abraham far
away, with Lazarus by his side.
As we continue to read
the parable (Lk. 16:24-31), we come to realize that it concentrates on the
plight of the rich man and his suffering in hell, which is seen as more
horrible in light of the blessedness of Lazarus the beggar, who now rests in
the presence of Abraham. The message is to the rich man and his brothers: if
they have not listened to Moses and the Prophets, they will not be convinced
about their responsibility to show kindness and mercy to the poor at their gate
by means of a resurrection from the dead (cf. Lk. 16:27-31). Once again, Luke
records the words of Jesus to affirm clearly the Old Testament principles
requiring one to act justly and to love mercy, especially toward the poor.
However, it is addressed to the rich man and his brothers, more specifically to
the sneering, greedy Pharisees (Luke 16:14), and not to Lazarus the beggar.
The final
uniquely Lukan passage which speaks of the poor is found in the story of
Zacchaeus the tax collector (Luke 19:1-10). Of course, Zacchaeus is not Just a
tax collector, but is said to be the "chief tax collector" (19:2). Tax
collecting was contracted out by the Romans to businessmen, who were to pay
the taxes due and then were relatively free to use any appropriate means to
collect money to reimburse themselves, and that, of course, at a profit
(Stambaugh, 77). It was for these reasons that they were generally assumed to
be greedy and prosperous (cf. Lk. 3:12-13). It is said that Zacchaeus is
wealthy (Lk. 19:2), and that he serves as the unexpected host to Jesus and his
entourage, which is passing through Jericho. The presence of the visitor has
quite an impact on the wealthy tax collector, and he makes a startling
announcement:
"Look, Lord! Here and now Ι give half of my possessions to the poor [italics mine], and if I
have cheated anybody out of anything, I will pay back four times the amount" (Lk. 19:8).
Again, Luke sets
forth Zacchaeus as an example to be emulated by those who would, like Zacchaeus,
come to experience the salvation of God (cf. other example stories: Luke
10:25-37; 16:1-9; 18:1-8). Zacchaeus serves as a model of those who give
generously to the poor.
Luke does not issue the call to proclaim good news to the
poor to those who are poor, but to those seen to be the wise, the influential,
the noble and the wealthy in first-century society and in the early church. We
can see this by simply surveying Luke's cast of characters in the historical
narrative and parable:
The Wise
The expert in the law who asked what he must do to
inherit eternal life (10:25-37)
The criminal who feared God, asking to be remembered (23:40) In
parable, the faithful and wise manager (12:42-48)
The
Influential
Most excellent Theophilus (1:3)
Tax collectors (3:12; 5:29; 15:1)
Soldiers (3:14)
Levi the tax collector
(5:27-32)
The centurion in Capemaum
(7:1-10)
Joanna, the wife of
Chuza, manager of Herod's household (8:3)
Jairus, a ruler of the
synagogue (8:4)
Zacchaeus, a chief tax
collector (19:1-10)
The Sadducees who
question Jesus about the resurrection (20:27-39)
The teachers of the law
((20:46-47)
The centurion at the
Cross (23:47)
Joseph of Arimathea, a
member of the Council (23:50-54)
In parable: the two servants of the man of noble
birth who went to a distant country to receive a kingdom and gave them each a
mina, which they profitably invested (19:11-27)
Those
of Noble Birth
Zacharias and Elisabeth,
priestly descendants of Aaron (1:5) Herod
the Tetrarch (3:19)
The Rich
Ruler (18:18-25)
In parable:
the man of noble birth who went to a distant country to receive a kingdom
(19:12)
The Wealthy
Luke mentions still others in his gospel, both
subjects of accounts and subjects of parables, who we may infer to have had
some worldly wealth though he does not explicitly say that they are wise,
influential or of noble birth:
Accounts
The centurion in Capernaum (7:1-10; Esler 172)
Simon the Pharisee, host at table fellowship (7:36-50)
Women who support Jesus and his entourage out of
their own resources (8:3)
The brothers who
greedily argue over their inheritance (12:13-15)
The prominent
Pharisee, host at table fellowship (14:1-24)
The rich ruler (18:18-25)
Zacchaeus, a chief tax collector (19:1-10)
The centurion
at the Cross (23:47; Esler 172) Joseph, a member of the Council (23:50-54)
Parables
The two forgiven debtors, who, respectively, owed 500
and 50 denarii (7:41-42)
The rich fool
(12:16-21)
The tower
builder (14:28-30)
The king who
is about to go to war (14:31-32)
The shepherd
who owns 100 sheep (15:3-7)
The woman who
has 10 silver coins (15:8-10)
The waiting
father (15:11-32)
The shrewd
manager (16:1-9)
The rich man
who died and went to Hades (16:19-3 1)
The owner of
the vineyard who rents to farmers (20:9-16)
This survey
provides an antithesis or counter-balance to the assumptions upon which many
scholars choose to build today. Frequently, the conclusion is drawn that
preaching the good news of the kingdom of God created an early cadre of
disciples who were predominantly economically and socially poor. Such an
assumption is based upon a literal, economic interpretation of Jesus' thematic
announcement in the synagogue (Lk. 4:18-19), the omission of "in spirit" (cf.
Mt. 5:3) in the beatitude, "Blessed are you poor" (Lk. 6:20), and the inclusion
of the converse, "Woe to you who are rich" (Lk. 6:24), and the response of the
Sanhedrin to the preaching of Peter and John in Acts 4:13, where the two
apostles are said to be "unschooled, ordinary men."
It was in this
vein that Martin Hengel spoke in his 1987 Stone Lectures at Princeton
Theological Seminary:
"We do not have a personal writing from any of the Twelve, and the same
goes for all early Christian teachers mentioned in Acts and in the letters of
Paul other than Paul himself, Mark, Luke and James. Only the Christian Gnostics
who had had higher education broke through a barrier here and began a richer
literary production" (Hengel 37).
Clearly Hengel rules out
any apostolic authorship of the canonical books in the New Testament. Those
acquainted with inductive methodology know that such limited literary examples
or statements do not establish a universal truth, and such a conclusion based
upon a narrow economic interpretation is most tentative.
In 1 Corinthians
1:26 Paul states, "Brothers, think of what you were when you were called. Not
any of you were wise by human standards; not many were influential; not many
were of noble birth." But the obverse is also affirmed; there were some. "As
early as Origen this passage was cited as an objection to Celsus's opinion that
in Christian gatherings one would find only the lower classes" (Theissen 72). A
sociological study made by Ε. Α. Judge, in which he canvassed the
evidence of three early Christian centers-Jerusalem, Antioch, and
Corinth-concluded that the early church in those cities "represent[s] a diverse
mixture with clear contributions from those who are relatively well off"
(Theissen 4-5). Gerd Theissen concurs with these findings, and adds that if the
wise, influential, noble and wealthy were few, their influence was certainly
out of proportion to their numbers, as witnessed at Corinth (Theissen 73).
They were also "puffed up" (1 Cor. 4:8-13), and were the source of many of the
problems existent in the Corinthian church (e.g., Ι Cor. 11:17-34).
Certainly one
can compile a secondary list of the stories or references in the gospel to
those who for economic, political or relational reasons were poor and
dependent. Their poverty may be either the result or the cause of their humble
situation.
Economic Poverty (Physically
Disabled, Sick, Demon Possessed, Day Laborers, Landless Peasants, Debt Ridden)
Demon possessed man in
synagogue at Capernaum (4:33-37)
Leper (5:12-14)
Paralytic lowered through
the roof tiles (5:17-26)
Man with shriveled hand
in synagogue (6:6-11)
Legion, a demon possessed
man (8:26-39)
Daughter of Jairus who
was dying (8:40-56)
Demon possessed boy
(9:37)
Demon possessed man who
was mute (11:14)
Hunchback woman
(13:10-17)
Lazarus the beggar in the
parable of the rich man (16:19-3 1)
Ten Lepers (17:11-19)
Blind beggar of Jericho
(18:35-43)
Kinship (Widows, Orphans)
Anna the prophetess,
elderly widow of 84 years (2:37)
Widow of Nain, whose only
son had died (7:11-17)
Parable of the persistent
widow (18: 1-8)
Poor widow's offering
(21:1-4)
Political & Civil Injustice
(Disfranchised, Slaves)
John the Baptist,
imprisoned, then beheaded (3:19-20; 7:18-35; 9:7-9)
Man beaten by robbers on road
to Jericho (10:30-37)
In Parable: servant
watching for his master (12:35-38)
In Parable: servant
serving two masters (15:13)
All of these references to both real characters and
those in parables serve to give us a more complete picture of the first century
world; however, the audience being primarily addressed is that of Theophilus
and his friends (cf. Esler, 184).
II. A COSTLY
COMMITMENT
The Gospel of Luke is
addressed to those who enjoy the comforts of life, who can afford to keep the
honorable customs of society, and who cherish the table fellowship of the
community. Jesus calls such as these to follow him. Listen!
"As they were
walking along the road, a man said to him, "I will follow you wherever you go."
Jesus replied, "Foxes have holes and birds of the air
have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head."
He said to another man, "Follow me."
But the man replied, "Lord, first let me go and bury
my father."
Jesus said to him, "Let the dead bury their own dead,
but you go and proclaim the kingdom of God."
Still another said, "I will follow you, Lord; but
first let me go back and say good-by to my family."
Jesus replied, "No one who puts his hand to the plow
and looks back is fit for service in the kingdom of God" (Lk. 9:57-62).
The reader must count the
cost. If the gospel calls one to leave everything-summarized here as the
comforts of home, the customs of the society, and the celebrations of table
fellowship with family and friends-then the good news sounds like bad news to
those having worldly possessions. Who would respond? Only the homeless, the
orphan and the lonely? That may be the tragic final outcome, but Luke's
evangelistic apology is, nonetheless, addressed to those who are not poor.
In Luke 9:51 the
reader is told, "Jesus resolutely set out for Jerusalem. . . ." Then the writer notes that certain Samaritan villages do not welcome
him, because he is heading toward Jerusalem, which would result in his
rejection and crucifixion by the elders, chief priests and teachers of the law.
The would-be disciple is called to repentance from sin and to follow Jesus
Christ, who is crucified. This is the heart of the gospel, and it creates a
crisis for the reader. One must make a decision between present worldly wealth
and the promise of a future reward at the resurrection of the righteous (cf.
Lk. 14:14) . The disciple is called to "deny himself and
take up his cross daily and follow" Jesus (Lk. 9:23). "It is, therefore, hard
for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God," we agree (Lk. 18:24). "Hard?
Perhaps even impossible," we say. "Who then can be saved?" Jesus responds in
the Synoptic tradition, "What is impossible with men is possible with God"
(Lk. 18:27). Luke's gospel announces the good news of the incarnation, the
cross and the power of God. It is a gospel of possibilities! Of the forgiveness
of sins and eternal life (cf. Lk. 1:37; 18:27). The greatest barrier of all to
salvation is worldly wealth.
Here lie the
cost and the crisis. Theophilus and everyone who would follow Jesus must "leave
everything," if they would escape eternal suffering and experience the kingdom
of God. This call for radical forfeiture of everything, for placing all that
one has in the service of the kingdom of God, becomes a prominent motif in
Luke's gospel. A positive decision is not easy, especially for those enjoying
power and possessions. Unlike Mark who places the invitation to discipleship
given to Simon and Andrew, James and John early in his account of the ministry
of Jesus (Mk. 1:16-20), Luke follows the birth narrative and genealogy with an
expanded temptation account. More significantly, Luke goes on to indicate that
before Jesus issued an invitation to discipleship, he traveled extensively
throughout Galilee preaching in the synagogues (Lk. 4:15,16), exorcising demons
(Lk. 4:33-36), healing Simon Peter's mother-in-law of a high fever (Lk.
4:38-39), and healing many others who were brought to him (Lk. 4:40-4 1). And
Luke tells us that everyone, except those in his home town of Nazareth, were
amazed at his authority and power (Lk. 4:14-15, 36-37). The people of Capernaum
wanted to keep the itinerant preacher from leaving, but it was his purpose to
"preach the good news of the kingdom of God to other towns. . . because that is why I was sent" (Lk. 4:43).
So it is not
until Luke 5 that we encounter a call
to discipleship. Here one witnesses the appearance of Jesus along the Sea of
Galilee, and the crowd has become so large that he must teach from one of Simon
Peter's boats put out just a little from shore. Then follows the miraculous
catch of fish, which so astonishes and overwhelms Simon that he falls at Jesus'
knees and says, "Go away from me, Lord; I am a sinful man!" (Lk. 5:8). To the
kneeling figure, Jesus says, "Don't be afraid; from now on you will catch men"
(Lk. 5:10). Then the reader is told that the four fishermen "pulled their boats
up on the shore, left everything (άφέντες
πάντα) (italics mine) and followed him" (Lk. 5:11).
This is clearly Lukan redaction, as seen in both the arrangement of the
material and in the vocabulary chosen. Whereas Mark emphasizes the suddenness
and seeming impulsiveness of their decision (cf. Mk. 1:20), Luke emphasizes
the thoughtful contemplation, which brings the fishermen to a radical
response, "they left everything."
Luke's model
for his readers is a person having position, power and possessions, who, having
considered the invitation fully, thoughtfully decides to surrender everything
to the lordship and mastery of Jesus, for he is indeed "the Christ of God" (Lk.
9:20). Thus, we hear the motif repeatedly throughout the gospel:
"And Levi got up, left
everything (καταλιπών
πάντα) (italics mine) and followed him" (Lk. 5:28; cf.
Mk. 2:14).
"Sell your possessions and
give to the poor (Πωλήσατε
τά 'υπάρχοντα
υμων καί δότε
'ελεημοσbνην) (italics mine).
Provide purses for yourselves that will not wear out, a treasure in heaven that
will not be exhausted, where no thief comes near and no moth destroys. For
where your treasure is, there your heart will be also" (Lk. 12:33-34; cf. QMt.
6:19-21).
"In the same way, any of
you who does not give up everything he has ('αποτ'ασσεται
πάσιν τοΐς
'εαυτοΰ'υπάρχουσιν)
(italics mine) cannot be my disciple" (Lk. 14:33; cf. none).
"So you also, when you have done everything (ποιήσητε
πάντα) (italics mine) you were told to do, should say,
'We are unworthy servants; we have only done our duty'" (Lk. 17:10; cf. none).
"When Jesus heard this, he said to [the rich ruler],
Ύουstill lack one thing. Sell
everything you have (πάντα
ϋσαέχεις
π'ωλησον) (italics mine) and give to the poor (διάδος
πτωχοΐς) (italics mine), and you will have
treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me'" (Lk. 18:22; Mk. 10:21; Matt. 19:21;
note Luke adds πάντα and changes δός to
διάδος, which intensifies the imperative).
"Peter said to [Jesus], 'We have left all we had, ('Iδoύ
ήμεΐς, ,αφέντες
τά tδια[italics mine], lit. "leaving our own things")
to follow you!" (Lk. 18:28; Mk. 10:28; Matt. 19:27; note Luke substitutes
τά Τδια for πάντα found
in the Markan tradition).
Luke 5:28 and 12:33-34
indicate the redactional interest of the Evangelist, whereas Luke 14:33 and
17:10 are found in material peculiar to Luke. Luke 18:22, 28 are very similar
to the wording found in the Synoptic parallels. This is what the Lukan Jesus
means by counting the cost. The disciple must repent, turn away, let go of
her/his attachment to the material possessions of the present world and follow
Jesus, seeking first, above all else, to advance the kingdom of God.
Jesus'
repeated question to Peter in John's Gospel, "Do you truly love me more than
these?" (21:15), is given similar description of a dynamic tension in "this
world" relationships by Matthew, as Jesus corn-missions the Twelve:
"Anyone who loves his father or mother more than me is not worthy of me; anyone
who loves his son or daughter more than me
is not worthy of me; and anyone who does not take his cross and follow me is
not worthy of me" (Mt. 10:37-38) (italics mine).
Luke, on the other hand,
amplifies the comparative tension to the point of making a startling demand for
radical allegiance to Jesus and the kingdom.
"If anyone
comes to me and does not hate his
father and mother, his wife and children, his brothers and sisters-yes, even
his own life-he cannot be my disciple" (Lk. 14:25-26) (italics mine).
Where natural affection
for one's own family and the blessings of this life compete with or oppose the
kingdom's principles and goals, a disciple must make a choice. It is
characterized by a deliberate beginning, daily renewal (Lk. 9:23), and never
looking back (Lk 9:62).
This may be
seen most clearly in two parables, which are unique to Luke (Lk. 14:28-33):
"Suppose one of you wants to build a tower. Will he
not first sit down and estimate the cost to see if he has enough money to
complete it? For if he lays the foundation and is not able to finish it,
everyone who sees it will ridicule him, saying 'This fellow began to build and
was not able to finish.'
"Or suppose a king is about to go to war against
another king. Will he not first sit down and consider whether he is able with
ten thousand men to oppose the one coming against him with twenty thousand? If
he is not able, he will send a delegation while the other is still a long way
off and will ask for terms of peace. In the same way, any of you who does not
give up everything he has cannot be my disciple."
As can be seen in the
last line, the subject of the pair is discipleship and the necessity of letting
go of everything to follow Jesus (cf. Lk. 14:27). Therefore, the first parable
compares the decision of becoming a disciple to that of building a tower or
some form of fortification to protect one's vineyard, house, or possessions.
One does not recklessly make such a decision to begin until one counts the
cost, and knows that it can be completed. To do otherwise may result in the
failure to finish, and expose the builder to ridicule.
The second parable
urges the person contemplating discipleship to act expeditiously. The would-be
disciple is like a king-which is a significant Lukan paradigm-about to go to war against another king. Wisdom
requires such a person also to sit down and consider more than her/his own private
finances. The decision must be made for the good of others and it must be made quickly. So a delegation
is sent to ask for terms of peace. It is of particular interest that the
would-be disciple is likened to a builder of a
tower and then to a king. These are figures appropriate to Luke's readers, and again the cost is "everything." They must prepare to meet the heavenly
king, and do so quickly. Such a costly commitment to Jesus
Christ creates a salty presence and influence, which benefits the poor, the church, and all of society.
III. A CHAMPION FOR THE
POOR
How is the reader to be salty (Lk. 14:34)? By giving
away life and possessions to the poor and needy of the world. Following Jesus,
the disciple becomes like him, proclaiming good news to the poor, resolutely
setting out for Jerusalem and the cross. On this journey one encounters in Luke
the comprehensive spiritual, social and economic implications of the redemptive
message of the kingdom. Esler is regretfully correct in his observation that
generations of scholars "have been so successful in making Luke's message on
possessions palatable for bourgeois taste that its genuinely radical nature has
rarely been noted" (Esler 170). The converse conclusion is just as troubling,
for there is a danger in so emphasizing social and economic redemption that we
fail to see the motif of spiritual poverty, the call to repentance, and the
gift of the Holy Spirit emphasized in Luke
(cf. Lk. 11:13).
In a context
of social and ethnic elitism, Jesus warns that his listeners must also repent.
Like the Galileans killed while offering sacrifices in the temple and the 18
who died as construction laborers, they also will die (Lk. 13:1-5). Jesus
follows the warning with a parable concerning a privileged fig tree planted in
a vineyard (Lk. 13:6-9). The owner looked for fruit on the tree, but finding
none, instructed the gardener to cut it down. The gardener appealed for the
owner's mercy, requesting a one-year postponement. The theme is still repentance
and its fruit. Then Luke gives the reader a pointed example, the Sabbath
healing of the woman crippled for 18 years. The synagogue ruler objected to
Jesus' healing the woman on the Sabbath, to which Jesus responded that he was
setting a prisoner free (Lk. 13:12,16; cf. 4:l8d-f) .
The
fruit of repentance which Jesus seeks- especially from his socially privileged
followers-is that his listeners give what they have, whenever there is need, to
the poor in their community, i.e., their neighbor. The disciples are called to
become champions of compassion for the spiritually, socially, and economically
poor.
Repentance,
then, takes on special meaning for those possessing material wealth. As Bruce J. Malina suggests, "In the eastern Mediterranean in New Testament
times, 'rich' or 'wealthy' as a rule meant 'avaricious, greedy,' while 'poor' referred to persons scarcely able to
maintain their honor or dignity" (Malina 355). Such social
attitudes were shaped by three
generally accepted truisms: (1) all goods are limited; (2) no one goes without necessities; and (3) the rich person is inherently evil (Malina 362-363).
Repentance or a change in character in a
wealthy person will then be witnessed in a dramatic way by the world.
Contrary to expectations, a disciple having worldly wealth gives generously to
the poor and needy.
The
disciple's first circle of responsibility is to her/his own people. As Jesus went first to his hometown synagogue in Nazareth
and the new disciple Levi invited his tax
collecting friends to dinner, so also the reader
is commissioned to invite those within her/his own world of influence to the
kingdom of God. When Jesus participates in Levi's great banquet, he is enjoying table fellowship with the middle class and wealthy
(Lk. 5:27-32). The Pharisees and the teachers of the law, however, criticize his
conduct, since this is modeling the wrong image for a rabbi. He is associating
with "sinners." They are assumed guilty of wrongdoing in the collection of
taxes and exploitation of the poor. And yet, Jesus
considers these tax collectors to be poor and sick. He answers the Pharisees'
charges by saying, "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I
have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance" (Lk. 5:32).
Here we see an important Lukan redaction. Whereas Mark 2:17 and Matthew 9:13
simply have, "I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners," Luke
adds "... to repentance." In this context one is not reading
literally of good news to the economically poor and the physically sick, but
understands Jesus to be proclaiming good news to the spiritually poor and
freedom to those held prisoner by their sins. He comes as the doctor to the
sick at Levi's party, calling them to repentance and spiritual healing.
The motif of going first to one's own people should
not surprise us, as Luke 14:16-24 reminds us of the first invitation to the
designated guests. It is when the invited refuse to come that the master of the
banquet issues two further invitations to those in the streets and alleys of the town and then to those in distant and remote
places. The gospel summarizes the commission given to the disciples in Luke
24:47: "Repentance and forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all
nations, beginning at Jerusalem." This mandate for the mission of the disciples
and the church continues in Acts 1:8: "You will be my witnesses in Jerusalem,
and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth." The circle of
responsibility starts with one's present sphere of influence, but only begins
there. The relevant point for this study is that "poor" in Luke's Gospel at
times seems to imply nuances of spiritual poverty, piety, and humility before
God, without economic or material implications. He appears to prefer complex
rather than simple images, multiple rather than single meanings. Therefore the
meaning must be determined by the context.
Lukan
redaction now becomes more apparent. In the Q material narrating the
preaching of John the Baptist, Luke supplements the sermon, adding 3:10-14:
"What should we do then?" the crowd asked.
John answered, "The man with two tunics should share
with him who has none, and the one who has food should do the same."
Tax collectors also came to be baptized. "Teacher,"
they asked, "what should do?"
"Don't collect any more than you are required to," he
told them.
Then some soldiers asked him, "And what should we
do?"
He replied, "Don't extort money and don't accuse people
falsely-be content with your pay."
Luke shows a special
interest in the man with two tunics, the tax collectors, and the soldiers.
Here are three examples of wealth, authority, and power over others, and the
good fruit expected from those who would repent. Of course, the economically
poor and the socially oppressed will be the greatest beneficiaries of such
righteous deeds.
Unlike the
other gospels which report someone criticizing the anointing of Jesus with
expensive ointment as a great waste, in similar but non-parallel accounts (Mt.
26:8-9; Mk. 14:4-5; Jn. 12:4-6), Luke exalts such an act as a fitting, generous
expression of great love from one who has been forgiven a great debt (Lk.
7:36-50). In Luke's Gospel the criticism raised by Simon the Pharisee,
probably a man of some means, is that Jesus is allowing a sinful woman to touch
him. Here one witnesses social acceptance and giving worth to a sinful woman.
There is no criticism of the woman's generosity, nor is this act denounced as
waste. The other three gospels all reveal such a criticism by either the
disciples, or Judas in particular, stating that the ointment should have been
sold and the money given to the poor. To this criticism, Jesus responds with a
polemical corrective or defense of the woman's deed with the words, "You
always have the poor with you, but you will not always have me" (Mt. 26:11; Mk.
14:7; Jn. 12:8). This is significantly omitted in Luke. Generosity to the Lord
and to the poor will characterize Luke's readers, and here one observes the
absence of tension.
The opposite
attitude is greed. Unique to Luke's narrative and further evidence for the
writer's redactional interest, is the inclusion of the story of someone coming
to Jesus asking that he would tell his brother to divide the inheritance with
him (Lk. 12:13-15). Jesus replied, "Man, who appointed me a judge or an arbiter
between you?" Then he said to the crowd, "Watch out! Be on your guard against
all kinds of greed; a man's life does not consist in the abundance of his
possessions." As if to seal the argument, Jesus tells the parable of the rich
man harvesting a bumper crop, and choosing to build more barns, that he can
keep it all for his own security and pleasure (Lk. 12:16-21). His philosophy of
living is a quest for the life of ease-"eat, drink and be merry"-and it comes
abruptly to an end. In God's judgment, he was a poor man, though having big
barns and worldly wealth. He serves as a negative model and a warning to the
reader. What did he choose not to do, which he should have done, and thus was
condemned? He should have sold his possessions and given to the poor (cf. Luke
12:33). Instead, he was greedy.
Dennis Ε. Smith has observed the frequency and prominence of table fellowship in
Luke's Gospel. "Luke has built his argument and theology around various
literary structures and themes such as 'possessions' and the idea of the
benefactor" (613). This thesis is supported by the frequent references to the
symposium setting of Jesus' "table talks," notably Luke 7:36-50; 11:37-54; and
14: 1-24 (Smith, 614). Such eating and drinking in itself is a sign of luxury,
and affluence and social prominence were accredited especially to the host
(Smith 617, 623). One may compile an expanded list of occasions when Jesus is
said to be a guest at dinner and participating in table fellowship, although
there is no extended report of the table talk or his teaching: Lk. 5:29-32;
10:38-42; 19:5-6; 22:14-38; 24:30-32. Still other passages are less specific
(cf. Lk. 7:34; 15:2, 23). But all these references to table fellowship serve as
examples for the readers to observe. The first conclusion may be that Jesus
eats with tax collectors and sinners (Lk. 5:30; 7:34; 15:1-2). It may be just
as appropriate to conclude that he also eats with prominent Pharisees (Lk.
7:36-50; 11:37-54; and 14:1-24).
Table
fellowship signifies the central social activity in the life of the believing
community, and is a prominent theme in Luke's Gospel. The rich person may do much
to provide the meal, but the guest list must be inclusive, not exclusive. Nor
are the places of honor to be the exclusive domain of one's friends, brothers
or relatives, or one's rich neighbors. The host must invite the poor, the
crippled, the lame and the blind (Lk. 14:13, 21), and honor them in the life of
the community. Such a person is extending the welcome of God, and all are
included in the divine hospitality. Here an eternal blessing is promised when
the rich humble themselves, choose to serve tables and give a special welcome
to the poor (Lk. 14:14).
Worldly
wealth makes one accountable to God, and must be used for the building of the
kingdom. The parable of the shrewd manager may puzzle and even trouble many as
a moral example, but the principle taught is plain:
"Use worldly wealth to
gain friends for yourselves, so that when it is gone, you will be
welcomed into eternal dwellings" (Lk. 16:9) (italics mine).
This principle applies
whether the disciple has little or much. If one follows Jesus, there will be a
shift from money to relieving the burdens experienced by poor debtors (Moxnes
141). The perceptive, shrewd manager makes a clear choice on the side of the
poor. Only such a person is found trustworthy in handling worldly wealth (Lk.
16:10-11). In fact, worldly wealth belongs to God, and it must be used for
God's purposes (Lk. 16:12). The choice is clear, "You cannot serve both God and
Money" (Lk. 16:13). If you serve God, your money will also serve him. How?
Jesus and his
disciples are the champions of the poor. The gift required may be everything
possessed by the rich ruler (Lk. 18:22), or half of one's wealth, as in the
case of Zacchaeus (Lk. 19:8). Or the responsibility may be to feed the poor man
at one's door, even providing healing antiseptics for a man's sores, as
witnessed in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk. 16:20-2 1).
The final
story in Luke's travel account (Lk. 9:51-19:27) serves to summarize our thesis.
Luke follows the account of the salvation of Zacchaeus, a chief tax collector,
with Jesus' parable of the ten minas (19:11-27). "A man of noble birth went to
a distant country to have himself appointed king and then to return." Ten
servants are each given a mina or about three month's wages and instructed to
engage in business while he is away. The man was made king, and returns home. Each servant in his
turn is called for an accounting and rated on the basis of investment success.
The first has earned ten more minas, and the second, five. The third in fear
hid his mina, without even placing it on deposit where it could draw interest.
To those who had used and multiplied their money w | 
