The Methodist Quarterly Review
1857

ART. VI.–—DRAPER'S PHYSIOLOGY.
Human Physiology. Statical and Dynamical; or, the Conditions and Course of the Life of Man, by JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New–—York. Illustrated with nearly three hundred wood engravings. Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, New–—York. 1556. 8vo.

WHY does opium make us sleep? Because it has a sleepy virtue. Why does the stomach digest food? Because there resides in it a digesting power.

Such were the superficial explanations of natural phenomena which were given in the schools five hundred years ago. A name or a phrase was supposed to contain the philosophical resolution of a problem. Every branch of knowledge was cultivated in that way, if cultivation it could be called, and the natural result was a crop of chaff; or rather no crop at all. For century after century during which this system had been pursued, no positive scientific advance had ever occurred, the schoolmen, as they are termed, treading round and round in the same unvarying track, solving, resolving, and dissolving the same questions without end.

But now if we ask, Why does opium make a man sleep? the reply is altogether different. Your family doctor will tell you, Well it contains a certain alkaline body, morphia by name, which is readily obtainable from it, in a crystalline form, by chemical processes, and which is one of an extensive class of substances having a powerful action on the nervous system, some of them acting in one and some in another way. Morphia disposes the brain to rapid destruction by the agency of the arterial blood, a disturbance which gives rise to the hallucinations occurring when only small doses of the drug have been taken; but if larger quantities have been used, violent symptoms of narcotic poisoning ensue, and if still larger, even death; the destruction of the organ occurring so rapidly as altogether to overbalance the natural and leisurely processes of repair.

Or, if you ask, Why does the stomach digest? modern science answers, that it is due to the exudation of a sour juice which is prepared in myriads of little cavities on its interior surface, gastric juice it is called. The chemists have analyzed this substance, and found out what its composition is. Now if you take the ingredients they have thus discovered, and mix them together, you make an artificial gastric juice, of which if a portion be placed in a glass bottle along with any common articles of food, and kept for a few hours at a gentle warmth, the food in the bottle undergoes digestion, producing the same products as would have arisen in the stomach, if the operation had been conducted in a natural way.

From these two examples we may perceive the intrinsic difference between the philosophy of the Middle Ages and the science of modern times. The former offers you explanations, which, properly considered, are no explanations at all; the latter deals with the tangible and positive, not only giving a clear and precise answer, but what is of infinite value, a fertile one. The barrenness of the old system, and the numberless advantages which are dayly accruing from the new, must be altogether attributed to the essential difference between them here pointed out.

Nor is it alone in such small and isolated questions as those just considered, that a resort has been had to these different methods of philosophizing. Great branches of science might be adduced as offering examples of the result of these methods of treatment. The most perfect of all the sciences, astronomy, offers an illustration. In its earlier period, while it was yet in its astrological phase, every star was supposed to be inhabited by some spirit, who could exercise an influence on terrestrial affairs, and even regulate the life of man. Hence it became of the utmost importance to ascertain the position of the planets at the time of the birth of each man, or to cast his nativity, as it was termed; for it was supposed that from the indications which might be so gathered, predictions could be offered respecting his future career, whether fortunate or unfortunate, good or wicked. It need hardly be added, that such a system as this led to a most miserable fatalism, and contained within it an absolute denial of the free will of man. Yet we must not suppose that such an absurd doctrine was embraced only by fortune tellers, quacks, and impostors; on the contrary, some of the brightest names that have adorned science might be mentioned as its supporters. Kepler, who prepared the way for the immortal discoveries of Newton, could offer no better explanation of the motions of the planets than to attribute them to the will of the spirit that thus inhabited them. His explanations have totally passed away, or only serve to excite the curiosity and surprise of the student of astronomical antiquities; but the numerical facts that Kepler ascertained by persevering inquiry, still endure, and the great doctrine of universal gravitation, which has given celebrity to Newton over all other scientific discoverers, was their necessary consequence.

Just as it was in astronomy, so it has been, and, indeed, we should almost be justified in saying, so it still is in physiology. This science, which undertakes to explain the manner of action of each portion of the system of man, and of all portions conjointly, or in the aggregate, lies necessarily at the foundation of all medical knowledge. How can a physician undertake to restore the action of parts that are working amiss, unless he knows precisely what the proper action ought to be? How could a mechanic be expected to repair a machine, unless he was familiar with the construction of its different parts, and the manner in which they were intended to work on one another? Indeed, it is physiology which constitutes medicine a science, and relieves it from the imputation of being a mere art.

As in other branches of human knowledge, the fanciful application of a word or phrase, by giving an imaginary explanation of facts, has acted as an obstacle to scientific advance, the same has occurred in physiology. Here and there, little by little, it is true, the right direction has been taken, but it has only been in isolated cases, and the science has hitherto never been submitted to the proper method of treatment in the aggregate or mass. What we here mean may be readily enough understood. Suppose that the question is the nature of vision, or in what manner the eye acts. The speculative philosophy answers you in its customary plausible, hut barren way; the eye sees because it is alive, and therefore cannot see after it is dead. But very different is the manner in which exact science treats the inquiry. It starts by explaining to you the properties of the rays of light as they have been ascertained by actual experiment; it shows how the transparent portions of the eye act upon such rays in the self–—same manner as ordinary lenses of glass would do, and since among such artificial glass lenses there are some which, by reason of their shape, act far more perfectly than others, it takes delight in incidentally pointing out as a signal instance of the wisdom of the Creator, that of all possible forms of curvature which might have been given to the eye, the one actually used may be mathematically shown to be by far the best. It shows how the iris, that circular membrane which gives to the eye the color that we see on looking at it, hazel, or blue, or black, is a curiously devised contrivance, in principle the same as the perforated plate in spy–—glasses and telescopes, a diaphragm it is called, the object of which is to regulate the quantity of light introduced into the instrument. But the natural iris–—diaphragm is infinitely more perfect in construction than our artificial invention in this, that it is automatic or self–—acting, opening more widely when the light is feeble, to let more rays in, and closing to a just degree when the light is bright. Hereupon exact science makes another note of admiration, drawing attention to the superiority of the works of God and the inferiority of the works of man. Then it goes on to show that there are formed upon the back of the eye, inverted images of such objects as we may be looking at, in their proper or natural colors, and in the right gradation of light and shade. With a pride which we shall readily forgive, it boasts that it has accomplished almost, though not quite, as good a result in the invention of the camera obscura, the instrument that you may examine in the rooms of any daguerreotyper or photographer. Then it draws attention to the circumstance that all the interior of the globe of the eye is covered over with a black pigment, for the same reason that we cover with black paint the interior of optical instruments, and also for the purpose of enabling the optic nerve to be duly affected by luminous impressions, so that they may be transmitted thereby to the brain. Nor is it only to the special action of the eye as an optical instrument that its explanations are limited; it also dwells on the connected and collateral contrivances incidentally resorted to for maintaining it in good order. Just as a man who has occasion to use his spectacles, breathes lightly on the glasses, and then wipes them with his handkerchief; to free them from all dimness and dust, so the front part of the eye, exposed to the impurities of the air, requires to be wetted and wiped; and this is accomplished by the aid of an apparatus which curiously distributes upon the surface little streams of water so long as the eye is open and exposed to the air; tears we call this water when it comes too abundantly, and drops over the cheek. The wiping is done by the eyelids, which exercise their winking motion without ever growing tired. Even in the manner of that motion, exact science finds a source of delightful contemplation, as manifesting in a minute particular, purpose and design, the use of a means for the accomplishment of an end, for the eyelids do not close, as one might say, square on each other, but with a movement from their outer to their inner corner, like the movement of a pair of scissors from the pivot to the end; and this guides the little accumulation of water to a small orifice that may be seen in the inner corner of the eye, through which passage it finds its way to the upper part of the nose. Hence it is removed by evaporation into the air which is drawn into the lungs by inspiration and cast out by expiration. So the act of breathing is incidentally, but very effectually applied for the getting rid of the dirty water that has been used in cleansing the front of the eye. Hereupon, again, exact science makes another note, directing us with intelligent delight to observe how those principles which chemists say are the most effectual in promoting the evaporation of water are in this case introduced, a warm surface and a draft of air. At this point we will pause for a moment, to say a word respecting the barrenness of the old and the fruitfulness of the new philosophy. Is there anything that can give a more profound gratification to an intelligent mind, than thus to discover in such minute particulars the evidences of design, wisdom, reason? Judged upon this principle; how utterly without significance and without worth it is to say, The eye sees because it is alive. Does that advance one at all in an appreciation of its qualities and manner of action?

But also in the other and perhaps more important regard, what a contrast there is as respects fruitfulness or utility between the two systems I On this point we the more willingly dwell, because we have written above a pretty sweeping denunciation of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Now it so happens, that the very example we have here under consideration, was the first instance in which the philosophy of the schoolmen was broken through, and a resort to more exact methods attempted. We often say that modern science takes its rise from the works of Lord Bacon; but the truth is, as may be ascertained by any one who will give himself the trouble to look into the matter; that our real obligation is to a far greater man, who preceded him by some centuries–—Roger Bacon–—greater in this essential circumstance, that he not only thoroughly knew the fundamental principles of modern exact science, but personally carried them into application, a thing which Lord Bacon never did. To Roger Bacon is due the first explanation of the optical action of the eye, and to him also we owe that noble invention, which has made the whole human race his debtor, spectacles. Spectacles, of which it may be truly said, that they have worked the miracle of giving sight to those who would be otherwise blind; no inconsiderable portion of the population in civilized communities. In our day we cannot realize the difficulties which were thrown in the way of the introduction of this invention, and the opprobrium with which its great author was visited. For; said the Schoolmen, since all the works of God are perfect, and the eye is one of his works, it is not only presumption, but even impiety to attempt to improve thereupon. How dares insolent man attempt to transform an eye which has been made long–—sighted or short–—sighted, into one of another kind? It is well for us in these later times that the reign of visionary speculation is over, and that we live under the dominion of Common Sense.

One after another the greater sciences have escaped from this pseudo–—metaphysical bondage. Astronomy cast off her fetters at the time of Newton, chemistry at that of Priestly. The progress of the latter science, and the improvement of anatomy, were indispensably necessary before physiology could enter on the same career. Here and there we notice isolated instances of improvement in the explanation of the action of portions of the system of man; but no general attempt has been made to revolutionize and model physiology in accordance with these principles, until the publication of the book the title of which is at the head of this article. Dr. Draper has for many years been known as Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New–—York, and, therefore, brings to the enterprise to which he has thus devoted himself; the experience which arises from the habit of instruction. indeed, the remodeling of physiology necessarily demands the possession of a knowledge of the two sciences which he represents, for the doctrines of the one are indissolubly interwoven with those of the other. In other respects, the times are favorable for the successful accomplishment of such an undertaking; and on all hands intelligent men as well as physicians are disposed to look upon it with favor.

In a volume of about six hundred and fifty pages, accordingly, our author makes his attempt. He treats his subject in two divisions, Statical and Dynamical, as he terms them, in accordance with the customary arrangement which obtains among writers on physical science. Under the first of these heads, he considers man in a state of equilibrium, particularly in the condition of adult life, and in their succession examines the various operations needful to maintain him in that state. Among these are the functions of digestion of the food the manner of its absorption when duly elaborated or prepared, and, of its conveyance into the circulatory system, by which it is carried. to every part. The causes of the circulation of the blood.; the manner in which air is introduced by breathing; the reaction of the food and the blood upon one another, and how the warmth of the. body necessarily arises therefrom, are next considered. The structure and mode of action of the brain and nervous system, so far as they are understood, are next shown; and the connection of that system with the muscular, the object of which is the production of locomotion, is explained.

In this portion of his work he likewise gives the structure sad functions of the various organs of sense, seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting.

He then turns to the consideration of the career of man through all his various states, from the first moment of perceptible commencement of life to its close, dwelling upon those portions which commend themselves to attention from their importance more in detail, and dealing with the others in a briefer way. We shall presently give some extracts from his book, as examples of his methods of discussing such questions, and shall here take the opportunity of remarking, that we cannot help thinking that he has done himself injustice in that part of the preface in which he speaks of the amount of contribution of original matter which he has himself made to the subject. Though he has seen fit. to speak of it in terms of almost insignificance, those who are familiar with the state of the case can have no hesitation in asserting, that no scientific book ever yet issued from the American press, has contained any–—thing like the same amount of original material, derived from laborious and costly experiment. Indeed, how is it possible that it should be otherwise, in an attempt which affects an entire science? The labor and experiment required for the dovetailing and patching together of parts heretofore isolated, is by no means insignificant; but our author's claim to consideration is in reality far higher than that, since some of the most important topics in the science are experimentally discussed from their fundamental principles; among such, we may mention the functions of respiration and of circulation of the blood.[FOURTH SERIES, VOL. IX.–—28]

As for the rest, every means has been taken to insure to the book success in its mission. It is profusely illustrated with wood engravings, some of which are of great beauty, and said to be among the finest specimens of that art hitherto produced in our country. To a very great degree, this excellence is to be attributed to the introduction of a method of photography invented by the author, and capable of being applied not only for the copying of anatomical dissections, but also for the display of objects which have been magnified superficially many thousands of times by the microscope. The publishers have also done their part of the duty, the work being printed on very fine paper, and in a style reminding one of an English book.

As examples of the style of the work, we make the following extracts:

"OF THE VOICE. For the production of the sounds necessary for intercommunication among the higher animals, and particularly for the speech of man, it might be supposed that some complicated and elaborate contrivance must needs be resorted to. This object is, however, accomplished by merely employing on its escape from the system, the wasted product of respiration, the breath, which, as it issues outward through the respiratory passages, sets in motion a simple mechanism, and thereby originates all the exquisite modulations of song, and all the expressive utterances of speech. Is it not to be admired, that thus out of dead and dismissed matter, results of so high an order, materially and mentally, are obtained?"

"What might be termed the comparative physiology of the voice, is very simple. It appears first in invertebrate animals, as a monotonous noise or cry, which, gradually in the higher tribes, becomes more varied in loudness and note. It is worthy of remark, that in the different stages of his existence, man himself furnishes an illustration of this course. Voiceless before birth, with a piteous or monotonous cry in early infancy, articulate speech and song are the result of education, and through these the power is eventually gained expressing the most refined emotions and the most elevated ideas. The solitary bell–—like sound that the nudibranchiate gasteropods emit, thus produces by its successive improvements, a wonderful result at last."

"Among insects, the modes of producing sounds are very various, some effecting it by percussion, some by friction of horny organs. In others the extremity of the trachea through which the air escapes is accommodated with vibrating membranes. According to Burmeister, the contractions of the muscles of the wings, which are brought vigorously into action during flying, occasion an alternate pressure and relaxation upon the tracheal tubes. The air thus passing in and out, throws into vibration the valves of the spiracle, in the same manner as the vibrating spring of the accordion. These vibrating plates of insects are the rudiments of what will become the perfect vocal apparatus in man. Again, in others the swiftly recurring beating of the wings produces a sound, as, for example, in the mosquito. Among vertebrated animals, those which breathe the air are vocal, nearly all fishes being mute. From fishes, as we pass upward, the sound and the instrument which makes it, increase together in complexity. From a single chink, the air expelled from the respiratory tracts of snakes, by the contraction of their abdominal muscles, issues forth as a mere hiss; the sound being increased in the frog by the development of resonant cavities. From these simple noises, we are conducted to the musical notes of birds, some of which are of exquisite purity and sweetness. In these the vocal glottis is situated at the bifurcation of the trachea, another glottis being above for the final escape of the air. These vertebrated animals first introduce us to the mechanism for articulate speech, the raven and parrot being able to pronounce words with distinctness. The articulation is effected as in man, by the motions of' the tongue and other portions of the mouth."

For the further consideration of this subject, it is necessary to understand that there is a distinction between song and speech. Song is produced by the glottis, speech by the mouth; or, perhaps, a more correct statement would he, that the larynx is the organ of song, the mouth of that form of speech that we call whispering, and for which nothing is required but a stream of air issuing from the fauces; the tongue and other organs giving it articulation; but for audible speech a noise is created in the larynx, and modified by articulation in the mouth."–—Page 851.

In the following passages he is speaking of the nature of dreaming:

"Dreams never strike us with surprise, no matter what may he the extraordinary scenery they present, no matter how great the violations of truth and reality. The dead may appear with the most astonishing clearness; their voices, perhaps long forgotten, may be heard; we may be transported to places where we have spent past years of our lives, combinations of' the most grotesque and impossible kinds may be spread before us; we accept all as a reality, perhaps not even suspecting that we are dreaming. The germs from which have originated all these strange combinations, are impressions stored up in the registering ganglia of the brain, more particularly in its optic thalami. These, as outward impressions have for the time ceased, are enabled to attract the attention of the mind, and emerge from their latent state. That dreams originate in such impressions is illustrated by the history of the blind, who still dream of things that they formerly saw. Thus it is stated that Huber, after he had been blind for fifty years, still dreamed of things he had seen when a boy. But little explanation can he given of the manner in which these vestiges may be grouped, a grouping which is so frequently in violation of all correctness, that a dream that presents us with a logical sequence of effects, and which we recognize on awakening to be naturally true, is sure to be an impressive one; and yet we cannot doubt that the causes which suggest dreams are often purely physical, as when, in dropsy of the chest, the dreamer fancies he is drowning, or even suffers under the same delusion when his hand is dipped in water; or when a candle is carried into the room, and he awakens stricken with terror that the house is on fire; or on the occurrence of noise he believes that he is in a thunder–—storm, or perhaps on a field of battle."

"One of the most extraordinary phenomena presented in the dreaming state, is the instantaneous manner in which a long series of events may be offered to the mind, the exciting cause being truly of only a momentary duration. Some sudden noise arouses us, and in the act of waking, a long drama connected with that noise appears before us; or in like manner we are disturbed perhaps by a flash of lightning, and with that flash occurs a dream which seems to us to occupy a space of hours or even days, 50 many are the incidents with which it is filled. It has long been known, that alike peculiarity has offered itself to those who have suffered by drowning, and have been, subsequently restored. They have related that in their moment of supreme agony, the whole series of events of their past life has, as it were, flowed in in an instant upon them, with the most appalling vividness; their good and evil works, and even the most trifling incidents presenting themselves with distinctness, a tide of memory. And, doubtless, it is owing to like causes, that under the influence of opium or other narcotic drugs, the relations of space and time are so totally destroyed, that we seem to live through a century in a single night, or to take in our view scenery, the distances and magnitudes of which are utterly beyond the reach of mortal vision. It has been truly said that the province of dreams is one of intense exaggeration. It is so in a double sense, for with equal facility we spread out a single and perhaps insignificant circumstance, so that it occupies the entire night, or we crowd a thousand strange, though perhaps connected representations into the twinkling of an eye."–—Page 555.

We had marked several other passages for quotation, but as our limits are already reached, these must suffice. There can be no doubt that Dr. Draper's work has made a profound impression upon his own profession, as is shown by its immediate adoption as a text–—book in many of our medical colleges. The general non–—professional reader, who feels an interest in the delightful science of physiology, will find in it a clear statement of the existing condition of that subject: set forth from the point of view which we have indicated above. He will find in the perusal of it an additional pleasure from the excellent manner in which it has been printed, and the difficulties of the subject cleared up by the numerous and beautiful engravings that are given.

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